3^ 



'V 



w 

{UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.} 



LI BRARY O F CONGRESS. 





MAP OF THE WORLD.— See p. 68. 



aEONOMY: 

A THEORY OF THE OCEAN CURRENTS 



AND THEIK AGENCY IN THE 



|0m^ti0tt of iU ffiotttm^ttte; 



TO WHICH IS ADDED 



ASTROG-ENEA: 



A NEW THEORY OF 



THE FOEMATIOy OP PLAyETiRI SYSTEMS 



BY J. STANLEY GEIMES, 

COUNSELLOR AT LAW: AUTHOR OF "PHRENO-GEOLOGY,'' "A NEW SYS- 




ALBION C0M3IERCIAL COLLEGE; 

ALBION, 3IICH. 

BOSTON: Samuel F. Nichols. 
1866. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 

J STANLEY GEEVIES/ 

In the Clerk's Office of the Eastern District of Michisfan. 



DAILY POST PRESS, DETROIT. 






< PREFACE 

^ 



In 1838 I published a small Tolume, in wMch I demonstra- 
ted that tlie organs of the brain are arranged in a certain 
natural order, which had not been previously observed. In 
1850 I wrote another work, in which I pointed out the fact 
that the cerebral organs are added and superadded to each 
other, in a manner that corresponds with the geological or- 
der of progressive creation. In-lSoT I published a new sys- 
tem of nervous physiology, in which I demonstrated that 
the functions of the body and of the brain are so intimately 
related, that one cannot be understood except in connection 
with the other ; and that both must be studied by the light 
of comparative physiology and geology. I was thus natu- 
rally led to the train of thought, which has resulted in the 
production of several es&ays upon the origin of continents, 
oceans and planetary systems. I ask no favor for the errors 
which this book contains : they deserve none. But, though 
the history of science affords me little encouragement, I con- 
fess that I am desirous that some of the new truths in these 
pages may obtain a favorable reception. 

Detroit, June 1st, 1866, 



To the 
Son. IMA MAYJELEW, 

THIS rOLrJTJE IS MESJPECTTmXY DEDICJJ^JEI}, 



Wh£n, a short time ago, I explained to the Pi^ofessors and Students in 
the Commercial College, in AMon, Michigan, some of the principles dis- 
cussed in these pages, a zcish was expi^essed that I wmdd publish a hook 
'upon the subject. Candor compelled me to answer that, in all probabil- 
ity, a publication so purely scientific could only be made at a pecuniary 
loss^ which no professional publisher iconld willingly incur. Under 
these ci?'cumstances. the Presidetit of the College, the Hon. Ira Jlayheic, 
generously volunteered to bear the loss, ichatever it might prove to be. 
The least lean do is to m^ke this public acJcnowUdgement of his magna- 
nimity. Indeed. I regard it as no small compliment, that this gentleman 
—upon ichom the mantle of Horace Mann seems to have fallen, icho has 
devoted his Ufe to the noble cause of education, and served the State dur- 
ing eight years, as Superintendent qf Public Instruction^shoidd so 
highly appreciate the results of my labors. 

I sincerely hope time wiM prove that, by this ax^t of liberality, he has 
confeired a favor upon the public, as well as upon 

His obedient servant, 

THE AUTHOR. 



Information concerning the Albion Commercial College, has, at my 
request, been furnished, and will be found in the Appendix. 



CONTENTS 



GEOiSrOMY. 

Page. 

SECTION I.— Introduction, 9 

SECTION II.— Cause of the Ocean Cueeents and 

Effects of the Earth's Kotation, . 11 
Distinction between Local and El- 19 
LEPTicAL Currents — Six Turning 

Points in Ellipses, 32 

Spots on the Sun and their Cause, ... 33 

Primitiye Plan, 35-47 

SECTION III.— Sinking op the Ocean's Floor Be- 
neath the Weight of Sediment,. . . 40 

SECTION IV.— Local Currents, 48 

SECTION V. — Derangement of the Currents^ 57 

SECTION VI.— Physical Geography, 61 

East AND West Running Mountains,. 71 

Mountains of the Moon, 87 

Geological Formations, 89 

SECTION VII.— Economy of Vital Force, 93 

SECTION VIII.— Drift Formation and its Relation 

to the Local Currents, 102 

SECTION X.— System of the Winds, 107 

Polar Lights, 120 

Cyclones, 122 

Recapitulation of Geonomy^ .. . * 128 



viii coNTEisT'S. 



ASTEOGEXEA. 

Page. 

SECTION I.— Introduction, 133 

SECTION II.— Formation of the Solar System, 139 

Magnitudes and Densities of the 
Planets, 145 

SECTION III. — Intervals, and Common Difference 

OF Orbital Velocities, 153 

Formation of Planets from Eings, . . . 159 

Formation of Asteroids, 161 

Nebltlar Hypothesis, 163 

Bode's Law, 167 

SECTION lY.— Serial Relations of the Planets,.. .170 
Serial Relations of Jupiter's Satel- 
lites, 179 

Serial Relations of Saturn's Satel- 

ellites, 181 

Satellites of Uranus, 183 

SECTION V. — Comparative Astrogenea, 184 

SECTION VI.— Physical Cause of Gravitation, 190 

Recapitulation of Astrogenea, 206 



OUTLINES OF GEOl^OMY. 



SECTION I. 
IXTRODITCTIOX. 

THE ^-^ord geonomy is derived from two Greek 
TV'ords, ffe, the earth, and nomos^ a laTV, and 
is analogous to astronomy, which is from the Greek 
astro7i^ a star, and nomos. 

Before entering upon an explanation of the prin- 
ciples of Geonomy, let us briefly review the pro- 
gress of our race in their knowledge of the earth's 
surface. 

Previous to the discovery of America, what was 
called " the civilized world, " was principally con- 
fined to the borders of that series of land-locked 
seas that extend eastward from Gibralter to the 
Indian ocean. 

This long intermediate region was denominated 
by Humboldt " a great cleft in the earth's crust," 
the natural cause of which he regarded as inexpli- 

XoTE.— I took the liberty to coin the word Geonomy in 1857, and to 
use it as the title to the small volimie which 1 then wrote on the subject ; 
and I am pleased to see that the learned Dr. Worcester has adopted it 
into his excellent quarto dictionary of the English language. 

2 



] INTKOBUCTION. 

cable. It appears to be well adapted by the Crea- 
tor to the purposes for which it was undoubtedly 
intended — a nursery of human genius, and a start- 
ing point in tlie march of our race to a higher 
plane of civilization. There is abundant evidence 
that Africa, western Europe, and eastern Asia 
Avere once separated by wide seas, which gradually 
became narrower as the continents rose higher and 
extended themselves toward each other. The navi- 
gation of those inland waters brought together the 
various inhabitants of their shores for the purposes 
of war and commerce. The result was that a 
mixed and superior people were produced, who in- 
herited, in combination, all the dominant traits of 
their several ancestral tribes. 

Civilization, so far as it can be traced back in 
authentic history, commenced its career on the 
banks of the Mle, which flows into the eastern 
extremity of the Mediterranean. It is now impossi- 
ble to determine whether the civilization of Egypt 
did not originate in India or China, but it is certain 
that under the combined influence of commerce 
and of arms, it directed its course from the eastern 
towards the western borders of the Mediterranean. 
The Phoenicians, the neighbors and allies of the 
Israelites, and probably belonging to the same race, 
were the successors of the Egyptians in enterprise 
and intellectual advancement. They were the first 
international and maritime merchants of whom we 
have any account. They traded in . all the 
countries between Britain and India, and made 



IXTRODUCTIOX. 11 

themselves acquainted with the arts of the various 
peoples among vrhom they traveled. A short dis- 
tance west of Phcenicia was the peninsula of 
Greece, where the eastern merchants founded a 
colony, and succeeded in infusing a portion of their 
own spirit and intelligence among the natives, 
whom they subdued. Thither they transplanted 
all the arts, the learning and the enterprise which 
they possessed. There grew the most remarkable 
people the world has ever known. The very ruins 
of their temples and their statues are still models 
which the artists of modern times are j)roud to 
imitate, but which have never been excelled. 
The same may be said of their eloquence and 
poetry. The intellectual influence of this small 
community is still felt wherever learning is ap- 
preciated, or science cultivated. A few miles west 
of Greece is another peninsula, that projects into 
the Mediterranean, in the form of a boot, as if to 
assert that it was pre-destined to trample upon the 
rest of the world. This is Italy, and here is Rome, 
Avhere civilization took her next stand, with aug- 
mented resources, clothed with the borrowed 
learning and arts of the Greeks, whom they 
equalled in bravery, and far excelled in political 
wisdom. They extended their power from Britain 
and Gibralter in the west to Egypt and India in 
the east. 

The vast undefined countries that lie north of 
the great cleft, contained a numerous horde of bar- 
barous people, whose interior geographical position 



12 INTKODUCTION. 

prevented tliem from enjoying mucli intercourse 
with Southern Europe, or with each other. Thus 
their civilization was retarded, while their physical 
and animal powers were highly developed. The 
necessary result w^as that these rude but vigorous 
tribes overv^^helmed the more refined nations near 
the Mediterranean, and produced the Dark Ages. 

When the light of modern times began to dawn, 
it was in Spain, France, and England, the western 
outposts of the great continent, that it was most 
conspicuous. Civilization had at length reached the 
shores of the Atlantic, and seemed to be gazing 
v>dth prophetic vision toward the w^estern world. 
It was at this time that Columbus appeared and 
commenced a series of voyages, which were con- 
tinued by Magellan, Gama, Cabot, Hudson, Cook, 
and finally by McClure, and Ross, and Wilkes, 
until, at length, the outlines of all the continents 
are made known, and a science of Geonomy has 
become possible. 

When sufiicient knowledge had been obtained 
of the earth's surface to enable geographers to 
make even imperfect maps of the whole vf orld, 
there w^ere several striking features of the conti- 
nents that attracted their attention and demanded 
an explanation. Some of the most prominent of 
them are the following : 

1. The continents terminate at the South in 
points. Thus it is with South America, North 
America, Africa and Australia. 



INTRODtrCTIO:^-. 13 

2. The Western sides of the tropical continents 
are hollowed out. 

3. The continents seem to be arrano-ed in three 
pairs, namely : N^orth and South America, Europe 
and Africa, Asia and Australia. 

4. Each pair is connected by an isthmus ; thus 
ISTorth and South America are connected by the 
isthmus of Central America ; Europe and Africa 
by the isthmus of Suez ; and Australia and Asia by 
a chain of islands and a submarine isthmus, which 
is only concealed by very shallow water. 

5. ISTear each isthmus is an archipelago on its 
eastern side. 

6. The shore lines of the continents are loxodro- 
mic or oblique to the parallels and meridian lines. 
None of the shore lines run north and south nor 
east and west; they run north-west and south- 
east or north-east and south-west. 

7. The slopes of the continents are most abrupt 
on the sides toward the larger oceans, and more 
gentle on the opposite sides: thus the American 
and the Asiatic lands are highest toward the Pa- 
cific, and those of Africa toward the Indian Ocean. 

8. Groups of mountains, in many places, are 
found to consist of remarkably parallel ridges, 
bearing a close resemblance to a succession of ocean 
waves, though not so regular or uniform. 

9. Volcanoes seem to be in most instances ar- 
ranged in lines, upon a series of islands parallel 
with the shore, or on the main land near the shore 
and parallel with it. 



14 IXTKODUCnOX. 

10. The Xortliern hemisphere has three-fourths 
of its surface above the sea, while the Southern 
hemisphere has not more than one-foui*th. 

It was very natural that there should be a dis- 
position manifested to theorize concerning these 
remarkable arrangements and features of the con- 
tments. Eeinholdt Forster, the companion of 
Capt. Cook, and the early friend of Humboldt, 
was the first to propose an explanation of any of 
these peculiarities. He suggested that there may 
have been a tremendous flood or rush of water, 
from some unknown cause, in a north-east direction, 
against the western sides of the southern lands, 
which tore away the shores, and carried the frag- 
ments across from the western to the eastern sides 
of the continent; thus furnishing the materials 
from which the islands near the eastern shores 
were created. 

The discoveries which have been made in Geol- 
ogy since his time have demonstrated the fallacy 
of Forster's hy]30thesis. It has been proved that 
the continents and islands have all been elevated 
above the sea very gradually, by a force acting 
imder the earth's crust. The borders of the con- 
tinents have been raised higher than the interiors. 
In many instances the earth's crust has been raised 
in a long mountainous ridge, until the crust has 
broken, so that at the top of the ridge, the two 
broken edges can be plainly seen, sej)arated fi'om 
each other by the axis or median line of the ridge ; 
the succession of geological layers on one side of 



INTRODUCTIOX. 15 

the line being merely repetitions of those on the 
opposite side. All important mountains are in fact 
made in this manner, though their broken edges 
are not always visible."^ 

If we except this geonomic theory, no hypothe- 
sis has ever been suo-g-ested to account for the 
directions in which the internal forces have acted ; 
nor has even a conjecture been ventured concern- 
ing the cause of the continents assuming the pecu- 
liar forms, number and proportions which they do. 

The favorite, and generally received hypothesis 
concerning the elevation of the continents, is that 
first advanced by Leibnitz, and advocated by Buffon, 
and more lately by Dana, Agassiz, and all the 
modern geologists, except Lyell. It may be briefly 
stated as follows : 

The earth was primitively a globular mass of 
melted and fluid matter, which was intensely hot. 
The gradual cooling of the surface caused a crust 
to form around the liquid mass. The continued 
coolino; of the internal lava made it contract to 

*NoTE.— It is necessaiy to consider this argument, when discussing the 
subject of geonomy with those who admit that the ocean currents have 
had a great influence in forming the shore hues, but who do not ac- 
knowledge that the movements of the internal lava were dependent upon 
the oceanic sediment and the currents. For, if the shores agree in direc- 
tion with the currents, so also do the mountains, which are certainly cre- 
ated by upward movements of the lava. If, therefore, the currents de 
termined the directions of the shores and mountains, they must have done 
60 by by regulating the deposits of sediment upon the ocean's bed, which 
deposits, by their weight, pressed the subjacent lava upward, and thus cre- 
ated the mountains. Any one who studies this subject thoroughly, will 
I think, be forced to the conclusion that a true theory of the ocean cur- 
rents must underlie a proper science of physical geography. 



16 INTRODTJCTIOIS". 

sucli a degree that the enveloping crust became 
too large for the internal mass. The consequence 
was that the crust became corrugated ; the lower 
folds falling inward uj)on the lava formed the ocean 
basins and the upper folds being left in elevated 
positions constituted the continents. As the earth, 
during the long series of geological ages, has still 
further cooled, the internal folds, that is, the oceanic 
basins, have sunk deeper, and the external folds or 
continents, have become relatively more prominent, 
until the present time. 

It will be perceived that this hypothesis alone, 
even if admitted to be true, gives no answer to 
the questions which naturally force themselves in- 
to our minds, concerning the forms, number and 
arrangement of the continents and oceans, the 
loxodromic directions of the shore lines and moun- 
tain ranges ; nor, indeed, of any other geographi- 
cal circumstance, except the mere isolated fact of 
gradual elevation and depression. 

In 1857 I wrote a small volume in which I ad- 
vanced the following propositions, all of which 
were original except the first : 

1. The ocean primitively covered the earth, and 
was nearly of equal depth over the whole globe. 

2. The ocean currents then constituted six ellip- 
ses or imperfect circles, three in each hemisphere, 
corresponding with the north and south Pa- 
cific, north and south Atlantic, and north and 
south Indian. What caused these six elliptical 
circuits I could not then understand. 



IXTRODUCTIOX. iV 

3. The elliptical circulation of the ocean currents 
caused the sediment to collect within the limits of 
each ellipse, on the ocean floor; which sediment, by 
its weight, caused depressions of the earth's crust, 
and, by crowding the subjacent lava upward, j^ro- 
duced corresj)onding inter-elliptical elevations : thus 
the oceans and contments were created. 

4. If the six basins had simk equally, the conti- 
nental interspaces would have been nearly equal 
and symetrical; but the basins sunk iiTCgularly, 
and thus produced the present unsymetrical map 
of the world. 

The 2^riii(*ipal defect of my theory at that time 
was, that I could not give any philosophical reason 
for the waters flowing in ellipses, and, of course, I 
did not perceive the distinction between local and 
elliptical currents. 

I assumed that the currents niust have moved in 
six ellipses, because on that assumption I could 
readily account, in a general manner, for the actual 
forms, numbers and positions of the continents. Be- 
fore my book was published, though it was stereo- 
ty[)ed, I foimd that it could be improved in so many 
particulars that I withheld it from the public, and 
only distributed a few copies among my particular 
friends. Bv dint of continual investio'ation, I have 
at length succeeded in discovering the reason why 
the piincipal currents assume elliptical paths. This 
has produced such radical changes in the geonomic 
theory as to render my former book on the subject 
obsolete, and to make this outline necessary. 
2* 



SECTIOX II. 

THE GREAT OCEAN CURRENTS AND THE FORCES 
THAT REGULATE THEM. 

IT is now admitted by the best authorities, that 
the cause of the great and constant ocean cur- 
rents is the difference of temperature between the 
higher and the lower latitudes. The water, being 
heated near the equator, expands and overflows 
north and south toward the poles, constituting a 
surface current, the y»'ater of which, as it gradually 
cools, condenses and sinks until it becomes of the 
same temperature as the polar waters. A large quan- 
tity of water is also evaporated in the equatorial 
regions and carried poleward, ]3i'<^l>^bly from 
five to thirty degrees of latitude, before it falls 
again into the ocean; even then it is warm and fresh, 
and adds to the surface current that flows poleward. 
The loss of so much water in the equatorial region 
is compensated by the cold under-currents that flow 
from the polar regions. We thus have a perfect 
exi^lanation of the fact that an interchange of cold 
and warm currents is continually going on between 
the equatorial and the polar zones of the earth. 

At the first thought we should suppose that 
these two currents would flow, one due south and 
the other due north ; but the truth is that they 



THE GEEAT OCEAN CUEEENTS. 19 

are deflected eastward when moving toward the 
pole, and westward when moving toward the equa- 
tor. The reason of this fact is now of so much impor- 
tance that, although it has been stated by many au- 
thors, and may be well understood by most of my 
readers, I shall, notwithstanding, endeavor to ex- 
plain it as clearly as possible, for the benefit of those 
to whom the subject is not familiar. 

EFFECT OF THE EAETH's ROTATION UPON THE OCEAN 

CUERENTS so FAR AS IT HAS HITHERTO 

BEEN UNDERSTOOD. 

The poles of the earth are relatively immovable, 
while each spot at the equator is moving eastward 
about one thousand miles an hour around the 
earth's axis. The nearer water, or any thing else, 
is to the equator, the farther eastward it moves in 
a given time ; and, on the contrary, the nearer the 
pole it is, the less is the distance which it travels 
eastward in the same time. Of course, each degree 
of latitude has its own rate of easterly velocity. 
This will be best understood if we take a roimd 
table and make it turn horizontally upon its centre ; 
it will then appear that the nearer any object is to 
the edge of the table the faster it moves ; that is, 
the farther it moves in a oiven time : and the nearer 
it is to the centre of the table, the slower it moves. 
In this case the centre of the table represents 
the pole or axis of the earth, and the edge repre- 
sents the equator. If we draw a straight line from 
the edge of the table to its centre, and place a 



20 EFFECT OF THE EARTh's ROTATION 

billiard ball on the line, near the edge, and when 
the table is still, give the ball an impulse directed 
toward the centre, it will move along on the line to 
the centre. Now set the ball again near the edge, as 
before, and cause the table to turn rapidly upon its 
centre; let the ball again receive an impulse di- 
rected toward the centre, and it will not now move 
upon the same line that it did before, but will be 
deflected, gradually, more and more from it to one 
side, which we will call the eastern side. The 
reason of this deflection is that the ball carried 
with it, toward the centre, the greater rate of ro- 
tary or easterly force which it had acquired near 
the edge. The water which moves from the equa- 
torial toward the polar regions of the earth is in 
the same predicament : therefore, when the differ- 
ence of temperature — the warmth — impels the 
water in a current toward the pole, the different 
rate of easterly velocity — the inertise — impels it 
eastward. The resultant of the two impulses is, 
(in .the northern hemisphere.) a movement north- 
eastward, and, (in the southern. hemisphere,) south- 
eastward. 

When water moves from the north polar to the 
equatorial region, the difference of easterly velocity 
causes it to move south-west. In reality it moves 
due south, but the rotation of the earth makes it 
see77i to move south-west, because it moves relative- 
ly south-west. This will be imderstood if we place 
the ball at the centre of the table already described, 
and when the table is still, impel the ball toward the 



XJPOX THE OCEAN CURRENTS. 21 

edsce : it will move in a straisrlit line in the dii'ection 
of the impulse. ]S^ow place the ball in the center 
again, and while the table is in rapid rotation, im- 
pel the ball as before, toward the edge, and we 
shall find that it does not pass along the line on 
which it previously moved, but runs, or is deflec- 
ted to one side of it, we will call it the west side. 
The table, in fact, slips past, under the ball, in 
what we will call an easterly direction, leaving the 
ball on the west side of the line. Precisely so it 
is with the current that moves toward the equa- 
tor. The earth is continually slipping under it, and 
leaving it relatively more and more westward. 
As far as I have gone in this explanation, I have 
merely illustrated the true doctrines of my prede- 
cessors, without advancing any peculiar ideas of 
mv own. The foUowino; views are of a difierent 
character, having nothing to recommend them but 
their own obvious merits. 

NEW THEORY OF THE OCEAN CUERENTS. 
TVv'O CLASSES OF CUEREXTS. 

It has been assumed by all writers on the ocean 
currents that the water always leaves the equato- 
rial, and also the polar regions, possessing the same 
rate of easterly velocity as the earth does in the 
latitude from which the current flows. This is not 
only a great mistake, but it has been the source of 
nearly all the errors with which this subject has 
been embarrassed. The truth is that there are two 



22 NEW THEORY OF THE OCEAN CURRENTS. 

distinct classes of currents in the ocean, one of 
which may be denominated local and the other 
elliptical. 

The explanation of the currents already made 
in the preceding pages, applies only to the local cur- 
rents. The elliptical currents have hitherto never 
been recognized as a distinct class, and the theo- 
retical principles upon which they depend have 
been entirely overlooked. The two classes of cur- 
rents have been strangely confounded together. 
The elliptical currents, when noticed, have been 
regarded as ordinary local currents, deflected out 
of their normal paths by accidental circumstances. 

CAUSE OF THE ELLIPTICAL CURRENTS. 

Prof. Joseph Henry, of Washington, D. C, in an 
article in one of the Patent Office Reports, says, in 
substance, that " there are five immense circuits, 
or whirls of ocean currents, two in the north and 
south Atlantic, and two in the north and south 
Pacific, similar in situation, and analogous in 
direction and motion. In the Indian ocean an- 
other whirl, or circuit, exists of the same general 
character." 

" It is not pretended," he remarks, " that the cir- 
cular currents can be continuously traced, but by 
attentively examining the maps the general out- 
lines and directions can be made out." Prof. Dana, 
in his Manual of Geology, makes the same general 
statement, and illustrates it by an engraving. 



ELLIPTICAL CUERENTS. 23 

While these distinguished writers thus admit 
that each great ocean possesses an elliptical cur- 
rent, no explanation of the fact has been proposed, 
except that the currents, when moving north or 
south in the manner already explained, are deflect- 
ed out of their normal directions, and driven into 
circular movements by adverse winds, or by being 
forced against the opposing shores of the ocean 
basins. It never seems to have occurred to any 
author or navigator that the normal path of a 
great ocean current is necessarily elliptical, and 
that it would pursue this path if no shores or winds 
existed to deflect it from its true course. 

According to the commonly received theory, a 
current which moves alternately to and from the 
equator and the north polar region, must flow 
north-east from the equator all the way to its nor- 
thern terminus, as a surface current, and then re- 
turn as a deep under current, running south-west. 
The only ellipse formed would be a vertical one; 
the warm current flowino- above and the cold cur- 
rent returning immediately below it to the equator. 
This theory is contradicted in every ocean, by 
more than half of the actual currents, and conse- 
quently, its adherents are repeatedly forced to re- 
sort to adverse winds and deflecting shores to ac- 
count for the numerous discrepancies Avhich they 
encounter. 

Let us take the current that circulates around 
the North Atlantic ocean as an example, by means 
of which to explain our theory, and the principles 



24 CAUSES OF THE 

involyed in all the analogous cases of elliptical cur- 
rents. 

When a current runs in a circle or ellipse, it 
cannot be properly said to have a beginning or an 
end ; but, for convenience of description, let us say 
tliat this current commences in or near the Gulf 
of Mexico, at the 25th degree of north latitude, 
and flows north-east to the banks of N'ewfound- 
land, in the 45th degree of north latitude ; it then 
turns and flows nearly due east, almost or quite 
to the shores of Europe, then south-east to the 
African coast, then south-west to near the equator, 
thence due west to South America, and then north- 
west to the Gulf of Mexico, from whence it started. 

When the water leaves the Gulf of Mexico — the 
25th degree — (1 fig. 1) it doubtless possesses the 
easterly velocity proper to the earth in that lati- 
tude. At all events let us, for the sake of illustra- 
tion, assume that it does so. Of course, according 
to the principles already explained, it must move 
north-east. When it has proceeded five degrees of 
latitude, and has arrived at the 30th degree, it has 
brought with it a greater amoinit of easterly 
velocity than the earth in the 30th degree posses- 
ses. The water of the current differs from the 
proper water of the 30th degree. Let us represent 
the difference by the number 5. This surf)lus, or 
diflerence, the current retains, and proceeds on its 
way north-east. When it arrives at the 35th de- 
gree of north latitude, the difference has increased, 
and now amounts to 10; at the 40th degree it is 



ELLLPTICAI. CURREXTS. 25 

15 ; and when the current reaches Xewfoundland, 
or the 45th degree of north latitude (2 fig. 1), the 
difference is 20. 

Here the current meets the grand banks, which 
are commonly supposed to deflect it eastward; but 
when we know that it has been acquiring more and 
more eastino- from the time that it left the West 

CD 

Indies, and that it has now a surplus of it equal to 
20; when we further consider that its northerly 
force has been, during the same time, diminishing, 
— we can readily understand that it would moye 
almost due east from Xewfoundland to the Euro- 
pean coast, eyen if the grand banks did not exist. 
In proceeding from the 2oth to the 45th degree 
the current is impelled by two distinct forces, one 
of which acting alone would haye carried it due 
north, and the other acting alone would haye car- 
ried it due east. The northerly force is at its max- 
imum when the current starts from the 25th degree, 
and gradually diminishes until it reaches the 45th 
degree, when it is exhausted. The easterly force 
— the di;Q[erence — is nothing at starting from the 
25th degree, but manifests itself unmediately after- 
ward, and o^radually and continuously increases as 
long as the current runs northward. TVhen, at the 
45th degree, the current ceases to run northward, 
it is subject to the easterly force only. It can 
therefore only moye due east. While moying east- 
ward it is continually growing cooler, and there- 
fore has an increasing^ tendency to moye toward the 
equator; in other words, it begins (3 fig. 1) to moye 
3 



26 CAUSES OF THE 

south-east, and continues in that direction until the 
easting is exhausted. This haj^pens near the 2oth 
degree of north latitude (4 fig. 1). The water of 
the current has now become neutral, that is, it pos- 
sesses no difference from the water of the earth in 
that latitude; and therefore, as it continues its course 
towards the equator, it flows south-west. When 
the current reaches the equator it is in a condition 
analoo'ous to that in which it arrived at Xewfound- 
land. It possesses a surplus of westerly force or 
westing, which may be represented by 20. The 
tendency to move south is gone, but the westing or 
difference is at its maximum. In fact it has only a 
tendency to move relatively westward ; and it actu- 
ally does move in that direction, from the western 
point of Africa (5 fig. 1) to the eastern point of 
South America (6 fig. 1). By this time the water 
has become so much heated that it overflows to- 
ward the north, that is, it moves north-west until 
it reaches the Gulf of Mexico (1 fig. 1). Its west- 
ing being now gone, it becomes neutral, that is, it 
possesses the same easterly volocity as th^ earth in 
the 25th degree of north latitude. Thus the ellip- 
tical circuit of the north Atlantic is completed. 

The attentive and critical reader will now per- 
ceive that a current cannot flow alternately north 
and south, in any ocean, without moving in an ellip- 
tical orbit, the diameter of which east and west, 
will be in proportion to its diameter north and 
south. 

The two points in an ellipse (1 and 4 fig. 1), where 



ELLIPTICAL CURREXTS. 27 

the easterly velocity of the current is the same as 
that of the earth, may be called neutral points. A 
local current is always neutral at its starting point. 
When neutral water proceeds from any point to a 
higher or lower latitude, it accumulates a greater 
and greater difference of easterly velocity the fur- 
ther north or south it flows, provided it does not 
cross the equator. 

FlGUEE 1. 



^^^ 


1 


^"^^- 


X- 






/ 




^N 


/ 
/ 




\: 


4 




\ 

\ 


1 




\ 


/ 




\ 


/ 






/ 






I 






\ 






1 
i 

: 
1 

! 






I 






\ 






\ 






\ 






\ 






\ 




J 


\ 
\ 




/" 


.\ 




• 






• 









We have here a perfect explanation of the fact 
so well known to navigators, that the currents near 



28 SIX TX7RKIKG POrSTS 

the equator run almost directly west, while those 
near the polar regions run east. We can also un- 
derstand why a portion of an elliptical current, 
when it flows northerly from the equator, must flow 
noYth'Westj and why such a current which flows 
southerly from the northern reo;ions, must flow 
south-east, 

SIX TURXIXG POIXTS IX ELLIPSES. 

If we analyze an elliptical current we shall find 
that it has six turning points which deserve to be 
separately considered. Li the northern hemi- 
sphere they may be enumerated as follows : 

1. The icest neutral point (1 fig. 1) — which in the 
north Atlantic is in or near the Gulf of Mexico, and 
in the north Pacific, in or near the China Sea. 
Here the waters of the current possess the same 
Telocity as the earth. From this point the water 
runs north-east just as a local current would. 

2. The due east point (2 fig. 1) — where the cur- 
rent has expended all its northern tendency, and 
where its easterly surplus force is at its maximum. 
In the north Atlantic this point is probably very 
near Newfoundland, and in the north Pacific near 
Kamschatka. 

3. The south-east turning point (3 fig. 1). — This 
is where the current ceases to move due east, and, 
growing colder, turns south-easterly. This point 
is, in the north Atlantic, near the Bay of Biscay, 
and in the north Pacific, near British Columbia. 



IK ELLIPSES. 29 

4. The east neutral point (4 fig. 1). — This is on 
the eastern side of the ellipse, where the cnrrent 
has the same easterly velocity as the earth has, and 
from which it moves south-west to the equator, just 
as a local cold current would. In the north Atlan- 
tic this point is near the west coast of northern 
Africa. In the north Pacific it is near the coast of 
California. 

5. The due icest or equatorial point (5 fig. 1) — is 
where the current ceases to flow southward, but 
moves due west. Having acquired a maximum of 
easterly difierence, or westing, and expended the 
force that sent it southward, it can only move di- 
rectly westward. In the north Atlantic this point 
is near the western extremity of Africa, and about 
five degrees north of the equator. In the north 
Pacific it is about ten degrees north of the equator, 
and several hundred miles west of Central America. 

6. The north-ioest turning point (6 fig. 1) — is 
where the current, being heated, overflows and 
leaves the equator, and begins to move north-west. 
In the north Atlantic this is near the point of CajDe 
St. Roque, in South America; and in the north 
Pacific, it is in or near the East Indian Archipelago. 

THE SIX TURXIXG POINTS IX THE ELLIPSES OF THE 
SOUTHERN HE:^^SPHEEE. 

In the southern hemisphere, the six turning 
points, though, of course, the directions are re- 
versed, are repeated in each of the three great 



30 TURNIIS^G POINTS IN THE ELLIPSES 

oceans. We are not practically as well acquainted 
with the currents in the extreme south, as we are 
with the northern currents ; and we cannot, there- 
fore, point out, in all cases, with as much precision 
as we could wish, the localities where they turn. 
I have no other means of obtaining positive infor- 
mation concerning the actual currents than those 
possessed by all my readers ; but, it appears to me, 
that when the laws that govern them are well un- 
derstood, the existence and direction of a current 
may be indicated theoretically, in any locality, 
the general geography of which is known, even if 
no actual observations have been made. Just as an 
accomplished astronomer, when he is correctly in- 
formed from actual observations concerning a few 
points in the path of a comet, can predict its course 
in regions of space far beyond the scope of hu- 
man vision — so the geonomer, when the principles 
and laws of oceanic circulation are well understood, 
can predict, with equal accuracy, in what direction 
the elliptical or the local currents must necessarily 
flow in any unexplored sea. 

1. The west neutral pomt^ in the southern hemi- 
sphere, from which the elliptical current flows south- 
east like a local current, appears, in the south 
Atlantic, to be near the mouth of the La Plata. 
If we rely upon theoretical principles, we must pre- 
sume that the current flows south-east from the 
neutral point near the mouth of the La Plata, and 
that it afterwards turns east and then north-east. 
But the truth is that we have only vague and con- 



OF THE SOUTHEIl]S^ HEMISPHEEE. 31 

tradictory accounts of the currents in the southern 
parts of the south Atlantic ; and our actual knowl- 
edge of the corresponding parts of the south Pacific 
is equally limited. I have a strong suspicion that 
the regular elliptical currents are greatly interfered 
with, in each of the southern oceans, by powerful 
local currents, which flow north-west from the un- 
explored Antarctic regions. 

In the Indian ocean ellipse, the west neutral 
point, where the current turns to flow south-east, 
must be near the Cape of Good Hope, and perhaps 
it is within the limits of the Atlantic ocean. The 
current of warm water that flows south along; the 
east coast of Africa, carries so much westing with 
it that it turns at least half round the Cape of 
Good Hope, into the Atlantic, before its westing is 
exhausted. Then it turns and flows south-east 
toward the Antarctic coast. — {See map of the 
worlcL) 

2. The due east pointy in the southern hemisphere 
is where the current takes an eastern direction, an- 
alogous to the current from Newfoundland in the 
north Atlantic. It is admitted, by all navigators, 
that all the currents that arrive near the Antarctic 
coast flow directly eastward. 

3. The north-east turning pjohit. — We know pos- 
itively that there are three currents of warm water, 
one in each southern ocean, which flow towards 
the Antarctic coast. We know that along that 
coast the currents all flow eastward, and we also 
know that from the Antarctic rerion three currents 



32 TURNING POINTS IN THE ELLIPSES 

of cold ^^ater flow nortli-east, — one to the west coast 
of South America, another to the west coast of 
Australia, and a tHrd to the w^est coast of Africa. 

4. The icest neutral point. It is well known 
that a current flows north-west from the west 
coast of Australia, another, north-west from the 
west coast of south Africa, and a third north-west 
from the west coast of South America. All three 
of these currents approach very near or quite to 
the equator. 

5. The due west^ or equatorial pointy is where the 
current has a maximum amount of westing which 
it expends by moving relatively due westward. 

6. The south-west turning point,, is where the 
current in each of the three southern oceans, turns 
from the equator, and flows south-west, until it 
reaches the neutral j^oint ; one runs along the east 
coast of South America, another along the east 
coast of Australia, and a third along the east coast 
of Africa. 

I have remarked that the further a current moves 
northward the further it must also move eastward. 
When this fact is realized, it becomes plain that 
the elliptical currents could not approach nearer 
the poles than they do. A current starting from 
the 25th degree of north latitude and impelled 
tow^ard the north pole, could not get within a 
thousand miles of that place before it would be 
moving directly eastward, (see polar view, fig. 3.) 
and as soon as it cooled it would berin to move 
south-eastward. This easterly tendency of the 



OF THE SOUTHEE:Nr HEMISPHEEE. 33 

pole^vard currents render large polar interspaces 
inevitable. 

I have described the currents as if they move in 
straight lines fi*om point to point, but the truth is 
they must move in curves. The current from the 
west neutral point in the northern hemisphere be- 
gins by moving almost due north, then a little to 
east of north, then more and more easterly, until 
at length the easting is so great that the current 
moves due east. As it cools it bcQ-ins to turn a 
little to the south of east, then flows more and 
more southward, until it ceases to move eastward 
at all, and for a very short distance it moves al- 
most due south. But soon it beg-ins to tm-n a little 
westward, then more and more westward, until at 
length it moves due west. It now begins to be 
heated and to turn a little northerly, then more 
and more northerly until it ceases to move west- 
ward and has reached its neutral point. 

From this brief review it is plain that all the 

Note.— The spots on the sun are believed, from their appearance, to 
be caused by whirlpools in the solar atmosphere. They are generally 
arranged near the thirtieth degree of the sun's latitude, and on each side 
of his equator. Is it not reasonable to suppose that these whirls are 
produced by north and south moTements of currents in the sun's at- 
mosphere ? Those who have heretofore speculated upon the subject, 
have not been aware that an interchange of currents between different 
latitudes necessarily produces a whirling or elliptical movement. 

In viewing the drawings which have been published, of the appear- 
ances of the surface of the planet Mars, we perceive the curved outlines of 
what may, perhaps, be continents and oceans, produced by currents 
analogous to those of our oceans. 

Some of the nebulae seen by our best telescopes, also present interior 
curves and ellipses, which may possibly be accounted for on the same 
principle. 

4 



84 TURNING POINTS IN THE ELL]tPSES 

currents tend to move in curved lines. We can 
now perceive the absurdity of the idea, which is 
expressed in so many of our books, that the trade 
winds cause the equatorial currents to move wes- 
terly. The fact is that the equatorial currents 
generally move more westerly than the trade w^inds 
do ; and the elliptical currents on their polar side, 
are more easterly than the winds that blow in the 
same latitude. This could not be the case if the 
winds caused the currents. In the Pacific, about 
10 degress north of the equator, a counter current 
runs easterly, w^hile, on each side of it, the main 
currents run west. If the currents here depend 
upon the winds blowing westward — what produ- 
ces the counter current which flows directly against 
the wind ? It should be remarked that the w4nd 
only affects the ocean a few feet below the surface, 
whereas many of the currents extend thousands of 
feet below. 

Fig. 2. represents the primitive plan or symetri- 
cal map of the world as it would appear if the six 
ellipses had operated equally and uninterruptedly 
from the beginning to the present time. The six 
elliptical currents are represented by connected ar- 
rows, and the directions of the local ^V^^er-elliptical 
currents represented by arrow heads. It will be 
seen in this and the other maps that the local cur- 
rents run counter to the elliptical currents. The 
local currents are represented as running only in 
the inter-elliptical spaces. 



OF THE SOrTHEEX HEMISPHEEE. 



35 



FiGUEE 2. 

Primitive Plan. 

I 



VICTORIA j^' 
'■t * 

V 

I 

I 



/ r \ 

y I ^ 

AUSTRALIA 

! / 

/ 
/ 



^•**-<' 



ASIA 



<^ 



\ 



f 






\ 

GRAHAMS"-- 
LAND ^' 

^ / 
^ / 



\ 

^ \ 

/' ^ j N V 
•^ SOUTH 

^ AMERICA, ^x- 



i 



^^^ 



/ 



/ 



_^-^ NORTH 
-^AMERICA 



\ 



a-- 



1 
I 

AFRICA. 

\ I / 



\ 



/ 



I 



\r 



\ 






::.'S==i^E0ROPE 



/ 



^*. --' 



^ . 



36 SYMISIETRY OF THE OCEAI^S 



THE SYMMETRY OF THE OCEANS RELATED TO 

THE SEASONS. 

Let US enquire why the north and south Atlan- 
tic, north and south Pacific, and north and south 
Indian oceans were arranged in such a symmetrical 
manner that each northern ocean had a southern 
ocean directly opposite to it. Was this merely ac- 
cidental ? or was there some physical or dynami- 
cal cause which rendered this symmetrical juxta- 
position of the oceans necessary ? The answer is 
that it resulted as a necessary consequence of the 
changes of the seasons. If the axis of our planet 
were, like that of Jupiter, at right angles to its 
orbital path, I have no idea that the north and 
south oceans would have been arranged symmetric- 
ally opposite. The northern and southern hemi- 
spheres would have been perfectly independent of 
each other; so that an ocean in the northern hemi- 
sphere might have had a continent, instead of an 
ocean, opposite to it in the southern. But the axis 
of the earth is inclined to its orbital path ; so 
that the thermal equator, instead of constantly 
coinciding with the geographical equator, travels 
north and south several degrees, as the seasons 
change, and the sun moves north and south in the 
ecliptic. 

In mid summer the sun is 23^ degrees north of the 
equator ; and the cold water of the southern hemi- 
sphere is poured in under currents, into the north- 
ern oceans, while the warm water in return, over- 



RELATED TO THE SEASOXS. 37 

flows, in compensating quantities, into the south- 
ern oceans. In mid-printer the reverse happens : 
the sun is 23|- degrees south of the equator, and 
the cold northern cuiTents are forced into the south- 
ern oceans. During the equinoxes, there is, all 
else equal, an equilibrium of the waters in the two 
hemispheres ; neither intrudes upon the other. But 
at all other times of the year, there is a continual 
interchange. The whole current of one hemis- 
phere does not enter the opposite ocean, but only 
so much of it as may be necessary to restore the 
equilibrium which has been disturbed by the change 
of the seasons ; the remainder continues to ciTcu- 
late in its own hemisphere. 

The coui'se which the intruding current pursues, 
after it crosses the equator into an opposite ocean, 
is, all else equal, the same as that of the proper 
current of that ocean. The course of the circula- 
tion of the two oceans together, therefore, may be 
illustrated by a figure 8, the crossing being at the 
equator. 

After this explanation, the reason is evident why 
the three oceans were placed symmetrically oppo- 
site to each other, and why the j?ontinents are 
regularly arranged in three meridional series. 

It should be observed that there is no isthmus, or 
connection by dry land, east and west, between 
the tropical continents, as there is north and south 
between the tropical and the northern continents. 
While Xorth and South America are connected by 
the isthmus of Central America, and Asia and 



SYMMETRY OF THE 0CEA:N'S 38 

Australia by a chain of islands and a submarine 
isthmus, — there is no isthmus, nor i^ there any 
chain of intermediate islands, between South 
America and Australia, or between Africa and 
South America. The reason is that the changes of 
the seasons caused a movement of the waters 
north and south, between the two oceans, and thus 
prevented lands from rising ; but no such move- 
ments occurred in an east and west direction. If 
the changes of the seasons, or any thing else, had 
caused a similar annual movement- of the ocean 
east and west, between North and South America, 
the connecting dry land of Central America would 
never have existed. 

The northern continents are nearly connected, 
east and west, in the polar regions, because the 
elliptical currents did not extend beyond the 60th 
degree north. Besides, the three northern conti- 
nents are normally but three points, or projections 
of a triangle, the centre of which is at the pole. 
This will readily be seen if we take a polar view 
of the primitive map of the world. — (See fig. 3.) 



SECTio:^ in. 

SINKING OF THE OCEAN'S FLOOR BENEATH THE 
WEIGHT OF THE ACCUMULATED SEDIMENT. 

THAT the central portions of the oceans have 
sunk, and that their borders have risen, is proved 
beyond all question. The evidence accumulated 
upon this subject by Darwin and by Dana, in con- 
nection with the coral reefs and islands, is highly 
instructive. It shows that the depressions have 
been gradual and continuous, in the same locali- 
ties, from the earliest geological ages. Many of 
the geological formations also afford the most posi- 
tive proofs that they were deposited while the 
crust of the earth — the ocean's floor — was slowly 
subsiding. Mr. Lyell, in his Manual of Geology 
says : 

" The structure and organic contents of some of the an- 
cient marine formations, point to the conclusion, that the 
floor of the ocean was slowly sinking at the time of their 
origin. The downward movement was very gradual, and in 
Wales and the contiguous parts of England, a maximum 
thickness of 32,000 feet (more than six miles) of carbonifer- 
ous, devonian and silurian rock was formed, while the bed 
of the sea was all the time continuously and tranquilly sub^ 
siding. The sea remained shallow all the while." 

" Prof. Ramsay has given me, (says Darwin,) the maximum 
thickness, in most cases from actual measurement, in a few 



40 SINKING OF THE 

cases from estimates, of each formation in different parts of 

Great Britain, and tliis is the result : 

Feet. 

Palaezoic strata, not including igneous beds 5t,150. 

Secondary 13,190. 

Tertiary 2,340. 

Making nearly thirteen and three-fourths British miles." 

Again, Darwin says " I am con^dnced that all our ancient 
formations which are rich in fossils, have been formed dur- 
ing subsidence. Since publishing my ^iews on this subject 
in 1845, I have watched the progress of geology, and have 
been surprised to notice how author after author in treating 
of this or that formation, has come to the conclusion that it 
was accumulated during subsidence.'' 

Mr. Dana thinks there is proof that a por- 
tion of the Appalachian region subsided not less 
than seven miles, before it w^as elevated to its pres- 
sent position. 

Sir John Herschell and Mr. Babbage have sug- 
gested that possibly the weight of the sediment, 
derived from the abrasion of the shores by the 
ocean currents, may, in some places, produce de- 
pressions of the ocean's floor and crowd the sub- 
jacent lava up under the dry lands, thus producing 
volcanoes, and perhaps adding to the elevation of 
lands already raised above the sea. They have 
not proposed to account in this way for the origi- 
nal formation and elevation of the continents, nor 
have they pointed to any j^articular locality which 
they propose to prove to have been elevated in 
this manner. They have merely thrown out the 
idea as a plausible conjecture, which is not incon- 



ocean's floor. 41 

sistent with known facts, nor with dynamical prin- 
ciples. Mr. James Hall, the distinguished geolo- 
gist of ISTew York, in his latest official report, has 
expresssed his approval of this speculation. 

Without knowing anything of the opinions ex- 
pressed by these distinguished authors, I was led 
to the conclusion that all elevations, including the 
continents, were caused by the weight of oceanic 
sediment. I inferred it from the remarkable rela- 
tions which I found to exist between the directions 
of the currents and of the shores, and also the rel- 
ative positions and number of the oceans and con- 
tinents. 

It should be remarked, that if it were perfectly 
demonstrated that the weight of the sediment had 
produced depressions, and consequent elevations, 
this fact alone would be of but little value; since it 
would throw no light upon the fonns, number, and 
arrangement of the continents. But when the 
true theory of the ocean currents comes to be un- 
derstood,, the fact of the distribution of the sedi- 
ment, and the depressions produced by its weight, 
assumes vast importance. K it is objected that I 
cannot directly prove that elevations are produced 
in this manner, and that therefore the idea is a 
mere conjecture — I answer, that it is true we cannot 
see the lava moving beneath the pressure of the 
ocean's floor, and therefore it may be said that the 
geonomic theory does not admit of direct occular 
proof; but, at the same time, to a philosojDhical 
mind, the evidence is of such a nature as to be 
4* 



42 SOURCES OF 

quite as irresistable as occular demonstration. 
Herschell quotes from Lord Bacon, the observation 
that "the confirmation of theories relies on the 
compact adaptation of their parts, by which, like 
those of an arch or dome, they mutually sustain 
each other, and form a coherent whole." When 
we consider what a vast number and variety of 
facts are accounted for by the geonomic theory and 
by no other, while not a single known fact can be 
found opposing it, our minds are so constituted 
that we cannot resist the conviction that it must 
be true. 

SOURCES OF THE SEDIMENT. 

It is supposed by some authors that the ocean 
currents do not abrade the bottom of the deep sea ; 
and therefore, it may be objected to the geonomic 
theory that, when the ocean covered the whole 
earth, there could not have been enough sediment 
collected to cause the depression of the earth's crust 
by its weight. It must, however, be considered, 
that the ocean contains an abundance of other ma- 
terials for sediment besides those obtained by the 
mechanical abrasion of its floor. The limestone 
formations, some of them several miles in thickness, 
are com]30sed, almost entirely, of the organic re- 

As soon as an ocean washed the consolidated crust of the 
globe, it would begin to abrade the surfaces upon which it 
moved, gradually* loosening and detatching the materials to 
deposit them again. — Agassiz' Geological "Sketches. 



THE SEDLME^sT. 43 

mains of creatures that have lived and died in the 
ocean. If it be admitted that a very small quan- 
tity of chemico vital sediment annually settled upon 
the bed of the primitive sea, geology steps in with 
its countless ao-es, and mao;nifies the total amount 
to more than enough for all the purposes of our 
theory. . 

Prof. Philips, in his Manual of Geology, 1859, London edi- 
tion, p. 633, remarks : — '' Nothing ismore certain than that of 
all the strata vet discovered, limestone is exactly that which, 
by the regularity and continuity of its beds, by the extreme 
perfection of its organic contents and by the absence of proofs 
of mechanical action, gives most completely the notion of a 
chemical precipitate. It appears sufficiently probable, in 
several instances, that the quantity of limestone deposited in 
a given geological period was least toicard the shores, and 
greatest toicard the deep sea; exactly the reverse of what 
happens with the mechanical deposits* of sandstone and 
shale ; it may therefore be viewed as an oceanic deposit re- 
sulting from a decomposition of sea water, aided in many in- 
stances to a wonderful extent, by the vital products of zoo- 
phitic and moluscous animals." 

Page 65 he says : " The deposition of limestone by chemico- 
vital precipitation would probably happen over a large por 
tion of the bed of the sea, and he abundant in proportion to 
the depth, clearness and tranquility of the icater ; hence strata 
of liinestone would thicken toward the center of the oceanic 
basin. They would be of more uniform texture, and perhaps 
of purer composition, in that direction." 

Page 50 : " The attentive observer soon learns to consider 
the operations by which sandstones and clays were accumu- 
lated, as of short duration, and intermitting action ; while 



44 SOURCES or 

the production of limestone is regarded as the result of one 
continuous and -almost uninterrupted series of chemical 
changes. 

" The carboniferous system in South Wales, which is prin- 
cipally limestone, is more than two and a half mile in thick- 
ness." 

If any critic still insists that the weight of the 
sediment is insufficient to account for depressions 
of the earth's crust, and prefers the theory of Leib- 
nitz, that the radiation of heat caused the internal 
lava to contract and the external crust to fall by 
its own weight ; — I reply, that both theories onay^yQ 
true, since one of them does not necessarily exclude 
the other. We may admit that the internal molten 
lava did cool and shrink so that the crust fell down 
upon it, and then ask — would it not be certain to 
fall, in preference, in those places where the oceanic 
sediment added most to its weight ? 

When to this consideration we add the fact that 
the eleyations and depressions coincide with the 
• ocean currents, is not the proof conclusive ? 

Note.— Relation of Ocea^tic Depressions to the Magnetic Lines 
" OF NO Variation. -The mariner's compass is commonly supposed to point 
north and south, but this is not the case in all places. It has been found to 
yary to the east or west, though much more in some places than in others. 
It has been discovered, however, that there is a line extending irregularly 
east and west across Europe and the Atlantic to America, on which the 
compass does not vary, but points due north and south. This line, called 
"the line of no variation,'' is not permanent, but, from some unkno\^Ti 
cause, slowly changes its location, moving in one direction forty or fifty 
years, and then returning again to nearly its former position. 

May it not be that these changes of the line are owing to the alternate 
movements of the lava beneath the earth's crust, consequent upon the 
varying weight and pressure of the ocean's bed ? 



PEIMITIYE PLAJq-. 45 



PEEMITITE PLAX OR SY^IMETICAJL MAF OF THE 

SURFACE OF THE GLOBE, ACCORDIXG TO 

THE GEONOMIC THEORY. 

The forces which produced the elliptical citn-ents, 
namely, the sun's heat and the earth's rotation, 
were definite, fixed and unchangeable in amount. 
Each ellipse must therefore have had a definite di- 
ameter north and south, as well as east and west ; 
and the six primitive ellipses were probably nearly 
equal to each other. It might, without experience, 
be a difficult, though perhaps not an unanswerable 
question, as to how many ellipses cou]^, under the 
circumstances, occupy the siu*face of the globe. 
Fortunately, however, we are saved the trouble ot 
making the calculation. The actual map of the 
world, especially the geological map, affords abun- 
dant evidence that there were three pairs of oceans, 
and no more. If the six oceanic depressions had 
been equal, the intervening elevations would also 
have been equal, and the map of the world would 
have been perfectly symmetrical (see fig. 2) ; there 
would have been three meridional series of eleva- 
tions, three continents in each series, namely: a 
northern continent, shaped like Xorth America, 
though smaller; a tropical continent, resembling 
South America; and a southern continent, project- 
ing* from the antarctic reg-ion, as North America 
does from the arctic, and resembling Xorth Amer- 
ica in form. The borders of the continents would 
have been elevated into mountains, and their inte- 



46 PEmiTIYE PLAX OF THE 

riors depressed, constituting shallow interior basins. 
The northern continents would, in form, all have 
been pointed toward the south, and the southern 
continents pointed toward the north. The tropical 
continents would have been pointed north, south, 
east and west ; they would be hollowed out on the 
western sides, one hollow on each side of the equa- 
tor, produced by local currents moving obliquely 
eastward (see fig. 2), and they would be connected 
by ithsmuses with the arctic and also with the ant- 
arctic continents. 

I cannot well understand why the north and 
south Atlantic pair was made smaller than the 
other two pairs of oceans. "Was it because there 
was not room enough east and west, in each hem- 
isphere, for three fully developed ellipses? and 
was it therefore necessary that one of the three 
pairs of oceans should be forced to take a smaller 
division than the others ? 

I have described North America, north-west 
Europe, and north-east Asia, as three distinct con- 
tinents ; but, taking a polar view of the primitive 
plan, we perceive that there was really but one 
north polar continent, (see fig. 3,) of a triangu- 
lar form ; Noith America being one of the projec- 
tions of the triangle, north-west Euro23e another, 
and north-east Asia a third. Strictly s]3eaking, 
therefore, there were but five primitive continents, 
namely: one northern, with three projections jDoint- 
ing southward; one southern, with three projec- 
tions pointing northward ; and three tropical con- 



SUEFACE OF THE GLOBE. 



47 



tinents, each of a qnadiilateral form. — (see figs. 2 
and 3.) 

FIGUKE 3. 

Primitive plan of the JSTortheni hemisphere in a 

Polar view. 





\ 


Nv. 


\ 


'^. 


^ 

■ 




A 




^ 


> 
r 


'/'-' 


'n> 




; 



^L 



SECTION IV. 

LOCAL CURRENTS. 

IF two currents proceed from near the equator 
(or from any lower latitude to a higher,) one of 
which is local and the other a part of an ellipse, 
they will not both run in the same direction. The 
elliptical current wdll, in the northern hemisphere, 
move noith-west, and the local current north-east. 
If two such currents proceed from the north 
towards the equator, the elliptical current will run 
south-east, and the local current south-west. In 
the southern hemisphere the same is true, but the 
directions are reversed. If two such currents pro- 
ceed from one of the neutral points in an ellipse, 
they will both run in the same direction. Any one 
who doubts the correctness of these principles, has 
only to apply them to the cases of the actual cur- 
rents to find that they encounter no exceptions, but 
that every ocean current . known is perfectly ac- 
counted for by them. 

I can understand that there mig-ht be a semi- 
elliptical local current^ under peculiar local circum- 
stances. If, for instance, the warm Norway cur- 
rent that enters the Arctic sea, moving in a north- 
east direction, could move unobstructed, it would 



LOCAL CUEREXTS. 49 

flow out of the Arctic again in a south-east direc- 
tion, thus pursuing a semi-elliptical path. 

Each of the five great oceans contains one ellipti- 
cal current, besides its local currents. The latter 
are necessary to give circulation to the water whicli 
is located between the ellipses, or between the 
shores and the ellipses. I know of no instance 
where a local current exists within the boundaries 
of an ellipse. Before the continents emerged from 
the sea, the water above them, not being included 
within the ellipses, must all have possessed local 
currents, the operations of which must have some- 
what modified the forms of the continents. 

Each of the tropical continents must have had 
two local counter currents ; one on the north side of 
the equator, which moved north-east ; and another 
on the south side, which moved south-east. The 
tendency of these two currents was to hollow out 
the tropical continents on their western sides. 
Thus one of the hitherto puzzling problems of 
physical geography is solved. 

The waters over the rising polar continents must 
also have possessed local currents before the dry 
land appeared; and they must have made ter- 
rible havoc with the lands that were about emerg- 
ino: from beneath the sea. I knag-ine that each 
of the three great northern ellipses must have sent 
oiFsets, or local currents, into the polar sea. These 
currents were each analogous to the Norway cur- 
rent that now enters the Arctic One similar to 
the Norway current entered through Behring's 
5 



50 LOCAL CURRENTS. 

Strait, when that passage was unobstructed; and a 
current of the same character entered from the 
North Indian ocean. 

ACTUAL LOCAL CURRENTS. 
NORWAY CURRENT. 

The current that runs north-east along- the coast 
of Norway, is generally regarded as a continuation 
of the, so called, gulf stream, or north Atlantic 
ellipse But it appears to me to be only a local 
current, produced by the wants of the land-locked 
Arctic sea. The cold waters that flow out of that 
sea, along the coast of Greenland, render it nec- 
essary that a warm current should flow into it 
from the Atlantic. The Norway current would 
therefore exist, even if the gulf stream were to stop, 
or if it were to flow west instead of east. 

If the communications of the Atlantic with the 
Arctic were cut off*, all the water that now flows 
into the Arctic, through the Norway channel, would 
flow south-east to the African coast, and thence to 
the equator ; in a word it would be analogous to 
the north Pacific current. But, as it now is, the 
water flows north-east into the Arctic, and would 
flow out again south-east, producing another " drift 
period," if the elevation of the coast did not pre- 
sent an imj)assible barrier. The current is forced 
to turn ujDon itself and flow out of the Arctic south- 
west, through the channel between Greenland and 
Iceland. Some writers describe the current that 



LOCAL CTJEREXTS. 51 

floTTS out of Baffin's sea as comino- from the Arctic 
sea ; and perhaps a very small portion of it has 
come through the strait of Fmy ; but I suspect 
that most of the T\'ater that flows out of Baffin's 
sea is the same as that which previously entered 
it from the Atlantic. In other words Baffin's sea 
is a mere repetition of the Arctic sea; which has 
a current flowing in on its eastern side, and another 
flowing; out on its western side. 

GULN'EA LOCAL CUEEENT. 

On the west coast of Africa, a local warm cur- 
rent is generated, which is called the Guinea cur- 
rent. It flows south and east into the Gulf of 
Guinea, beyond which it cannot now be traced. 
Lieut. Mamy says that it goes to the Falkland 
islands, and warms the Patagonian coast. This 
is incredible. Why should a warm current like 
this, flowing from the equator, move icestward 
across the south Atlantic ? It is contrarv to Lieut. 
Maury's own principles. 

CAPE HOEX LOCAL CUEEEXT. 

A current, which may be denominated the Cape 
Horn local cuiTent, is generated near the coast of 
Chili and Peru. It is analogous to the Guinea 
local current, and runs south to Cape Horn, be- 
tween the coast and the cold elliptical current. 
When this warm local current reaches Cape Horn, 
it has acquired so much easting that it is imj^elled 



52 LOCAL CtlERENTS. 

to flow eastward, around the Cape, into the south 
Atlantic and among the Falkland islands. 

The cold current from the antarctic, which, near 
Peru, is known as the Humboldt current, flows 
north along the South American coast to Chili and 
Peru, chilling the climate of those shores ; while 
the local current flows in the contrary direction, 
and warms the shores of the Patagonian and Fue- 
gean coasts. 

All the writers on this subject describe this great 
current as flowing cold from the antarctic, and 
" dividing into two branches," one of which, after 
reaching Chili and getting warm, turns back, and 
flows around Cape Horn. According to our theory 
this cannot be true. The Humboldt and the ant- 
arctic currents are parts of the south Pacific ellipse, 
and cannot flow back. The Cape Horn counter 
current is distinct, independent and local. 

There is a remarkable local counter-current, in 
the triangular space between the west coast of Cen- 
tral America and the two great elliptical currents 
of the Pacific ocean, about 10 degrees north of the 
equator. It seems to be generated in mid-ocean, 
and flows east and north, as a warm local current 
in that situation must. It has hitherto seemed 
strange and anomalous, that two great equatorial 
currents, one north of the equator and the other 
mostly south of it, should be flowing constantly 
due west, and yet that between the two (but nearer 
to the American than to the Asiatic coast) a warm 
coimter current be flowing east and north-eastward. 



LOCAL CUHREXTS. 53 

Oiu' theory solves the enigma, by showing the dis- 
tinction between elliptical and local currents. An 
elliptical ciirrent must always flow westward near 
the equator, while a local current must, in the same 
latitude, flow eastward. There is a local current 
flowing in and out of the Ochotsk sea, analogous to 
that which flows in and out of Baffins sea; and 
doubtless there are other interior currents of a simi- 
lar character in the Alleutian, Japan, Chinese, and 
other minor seas along this coast. 

In the Indian ocean, the elliptical current, accord- 
ing to the authorities, Ls all south of the equator. 
It flows fi*om a point near the equator, and south 
of it, along: the east coast of south Africa. It is 
divided by the island of Madagascar, a part flow- 
ing between the island and the continent, and the 
rest flowing outside of the island; but, before 
reaching the Cape of Good Hope, the two divisions 
unite, and are then called " the Lao:ullas current." 

It has long been supposed that this cun-ent passes 
entii'ely around the Cape into the Atlantic, and 
then flows north. According to the principles of 
geonomy, this is impossible. The current possesses 
so much westing that it flows into the Atlantic a 
short distance, and then turns and flows eastward 
and southward to the antarctic coast. The actual 
observations of navio^ators seem to have convinced 
Lieut. ATaury that this was the true state of the 
case, and our theory of the cun*ents confirms the 
idea. Prof. Guyot has also, in his map of the world, 



54 LOCAL CURRENTS. 

indicated that this current floT\'S in the manner I 
have described. 

There is a large land-locked space north of the 
equator, in the Indian ocean, the water of which 
does not obtain its needed circulation by means of 
the south Indian ocean ellipse, and must therefore 
depend upon its local currents. It is said by Lieut. 
Maury that the LaguUas current " has its genesis 
in the Arabian sea," but this cannot be true. A 
current that is generated in that sea must flow 
south-east, if it crosses the equator, and north-east, 
if it does not. It cannot manifest the westerly 
tendency that the LaguUas current does, unless it 
has pre^TLOusly flowed a considerable distance south- 
west. Probably the Arabian and Bengal seas send 
a very large proportion of their warm waters 
into the north Pacific, where they flow north- 
eastward along the Asiatic coast. Prof. Guyot rep- 
resents the current as flowing south-west from the 
Arabian sea across the equator, and along the east 
African coast. But according^ to our theory, this 
must be a mistake — unless the current first enters 
the Arabian sea froim the south, and biings its 
westing with it. 

According to the received theory, the warm 
current that flows south along the east coast 
of Africa, should flow south-east. Its warmth 
tends it toward the pole, and the earth's rotation 
tends to force it eastward. Why, then, does it 
show such a strong westerly tendency, keeping 
close to the eastern shore of Afiica, and, as it were, 



LOCAL CUREENTS. 55 

attempting to escape westward around the Cape of 
Good Hope ? The old theories give no reason for 
this, though all authors state the fact. According 
to the geonomic theory, the reason is plain enough. 
The current conies from the antarctic reo-ion to the 
equator, and brings a large quantity of westing 
with it; and when returning northward it exhibits 
this westino' by forcing^ itself against the Afiican 
coast, and partially tuiTiing aromid the Cape of 
Good Hope. Probably the peculiar form of the 
Cape — rounded on its eastern side — was caused by 
this current. On the same j^rinciple. Cape Horn 
received its form from the local current that passes 
around it in an eastern direction. 

SEASOX CUEEEXTS OF THE IXDIAX OCEAX. 

There are currents in the Indian ocean, north of 
the equator, which flow alteniately in a northerly 
and a southerly direction. These changes have 
been generally attributed to the influences of the 
monsoon or season winds ;- and it is possible that 
they have some agency in producing them, but I 
very much doubt it. I suspect that the same 
causes that produce monsoon or season winds, also 
produce monsoon or season currents, in the land- 
locked seas that wash the shores of Arabia and 
India. When the sun is in the north, the Indian 
waters north of the equator are the most heated 
of all the seas on the globe. They are much 
warmer than the waters at the equator. Under 



56 LOCAL CUERENTS. 

these circumstances, there will naturally be a cur- 
rent from the equator northward, the water of 
which will ultimately find its way north-east into 
the Pacific. In mid- winter, when the sun is in the 
south, the waters at the equator must be warmer 
than those along the south Asiatic coast; and local 
currents therefore flow south-east toward the equa- 
tor. I do not believe that there is a single instance 
in which a constant or j)eriodical current of the 
ocean is produced by the wind. The fact that the 
winds frequently coincide with the ocean currents, 
merely proves that the currents of the ocean and 
of the atmosphere are both produced at the same 
time by a common cause. 



SECTION Y. 

DERANGEMENT OF THE CURRENTS AND THE 

CONSEQUENT CHANGES IN THE SHORES 

AND CONTINENTS. 

IN examining the north and south Pacific, we find 
that there is a permanent cause of disturbance 
between the two oceans. The land near Behring's 
strait is elevated, so as to present any efiectual 
communication with the cold waters of the Arctic 
sea ; consequently, the elliptical current does not 
approach within 35 degrees of the north pole, while, 
in the south Pacific, it reaches within at least 25 
degrees of the south pole. The consequence is 
that when the two currents meet at the equator, 
one from the north and the other from the south, 
they difier in temperature, even during the equi- 
noxes ; and therefore, the warmer current from the 
north must overflow into the south Pacific, and the 
colder south Pacific current underflow in the con- 
trary direction. 

Whether this inequality of the two oceans was 
caused by the elevation of the Arctic lands, or the 
depression of those in the Antarctic, or by both 
combined, it is not very easy to conjecture, but the 
immediate efiect was to produce a permanent de- 
rangement or obliquity of the circulation in both 
oceans and a corresponding change in the shore 
6 



58 deeakgemejST of 

lines. . Let us assume that tlie land in the north 
prevented the current from going beyond the 35th 
degree of north latitude, while the depression in 
the Antarctic region allowed it to flow to the YOth 
degree of south latitude. What course did the cur- 
rent necessarily pursue ? and in what respects did 
its path differ from that of the normal and primitive 
current when the two oceans were equal ? 

1. Commencing at Behring's strait it did not 
move as far south-east, and therefore it promoted 
the elevation of the western side of North America. 

2. After crossing the equator it had less westing, 
and therefore it probably did not reach the coast 
of Australia, but turned south and south-east near 
the east side of New Zealand ; possibly it was the 
means of causing the elevation of that island ; for 
its geology indicates that it was elevated subse- 
quently to Australia. 

3. The invading current, not having communi- 
cated with the Arctic sea, was abnormally waiTG. 
when it crossed the equator, and therefore ap- 
proached nearer to the south j)ole to get cooled. 
We will assume that it reached the 70th degree of 
south latitude. It had now acquired an abnormal 
quantity of easting, and, of course, it moved an 
abnormal distance south-east, thence due east, and 
then north-east. It could not do this without 
overflowing the then rising and normal continent 
of Graham's Land in antarctic America, and also the 
rising, continent of tropical (South) America. Did 
not this cause the present continent of South 



THE CUREENTS. 59 

America to be placed further east than it would 
otherwise have been ? And was not this one cause 
of the narrowness of the south Atlantic ? 

4. When the current on its return reached the 
equatorial region, it had travelled YO degrees of 
latitude, and, therefore, possessed a great amount 
of westing ; consequently, it moved an abnormal 
distance westward before it re-crossed the equator, 
and also after it had re-crossed it. Of course it must 
have overflowed the rising and normal continent 
of tropical Australia, which was then divided into 
two equal halves by the equator. (See the symme- 
trical map.) Is not this the reason why the pres- 
ent Australia is crowded so far south ? and why the 
archipelago between it and Asia has the appear- 
ance of a wrecked continent ? 

5. When the current had re-crossed the equator, 
moving in a north-west direction, did it give form 
and a westerly direction to the islands that lay 
in its path through the East Indies ? Did it in- 
trude upon the domain of the north Indian ocean, 
and contribute to the destruction of that basin ? 
It certainly must have moved an abnormal distance 
west, and north-west ; and the actual departure of 
the present Pacific outlines from the primitive sym- 
metrical map, are precisely such as this deranged 
current would produce. If, on a symmetrical map, 
we mark the path of this current, thus deranged, and 
observe where it varies from the primitive path, 
we shall find that we have unconsciously drawn the 
actual outline of the Pacific. 



60 



the cureents. 
Figure 4. 




In fig. 4, tlie normal and primitive currents of tlie north 
and south Pacific are represented by continuous lines, and 
the present deranged currents hj dotted lines. The land is 
represented as elevated in the north so as to exclude the 
warm current from the Arctic, and to cause it to vary as al- 
ready described, and as the dotted line represents. S. P. 
south Pacific, N. P., north Pacific. The reader will of course 
understand that fig. 4 is merely a diagram, used to convey a 
complicated general idea, and is not intended to represent 
the actual currents. 



SECTION YI. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ITS RELATIONS 

TO THE NEW THEORY OF THE 

OCEAN CURRENTS. 

THE Study of j^hysical geography has hitherto 
been little more than what the word literally 
implies, that is, a description of the principal na- 
tm^al features of the earth's surface, without a phi- 
losophical explanation of their causes. We are 
now enabled to look deeper into the matter, and to 
study the terrestrial masses and oceanic basins, with 
a better knowledge of the dynamical agencies that 
created them and gave them their relative posi- 
tions and forms. The continents, mountains and 
islands are no longer unmeaning objects, with 
varying elevations and outlines, that impress our 
minds with vague wonder. They are historic 
monuments of the events of ages so vast, that 
human generations are but as moments in the com- 
parison. The surface of the globe is covered with 
ancient hieroglyphics, the alphabet of which is 
now known ; and which, when properly translated, 
are found to contain the divinest poetry of nature. 
To understand the present actual map of the 
world, we must regard it as a distortion of the primi- 
tive map. In comparing the two, we find in the act- 
ual map some remarkable departures and discrepan- 



62 PHYSICAL 

cies; so great indeed are they,iia some places, that 
the original features are scarcely discernable, except 
to the eye of science. In studying any science, we 
are frequently obliged to discriminate between the 
normal and the abnormal results of nature's laws. 
"When accounting for any natural production, we 
must first inquire what form or mode it would as- 
sume if no disturbing causes were interposed. This 
being determined, we are better able to account 
for the forms and conditions that actually exist. 
Thus, physiology is the science of the functions of 
organs in their normal and healthful state ; and that 
must be well understood before the diseased con- 
ditions of these same organs, and their departures 
from health, can be comprehended. 

Applying this principle to the actual continents 
and oceans, we first ascertain that the ocean 
primitively covered the globe. We next demon- 
strate that the oceanic waters must necessarily 
have become divided into a definite number 
of ellipses ; and we find, by a mere inspec- 
tion of the common and geological maps, that 
there actually were three ellipses in the northern 
and three in the southern hemisphere, and that 
they were arranged symmetrically opposite each 
other. We now make a diagram map as a stand- 
ard, or representative of the primitive plan in all 
its simplicity ; and we say — such would have been 
the present map of the world if nothing had inter- 
fered with the equal operation of the six ellipses 
of currents. (See fig. 2.) We next consider the 



GEOGEAPHY. 63 

local ciuTents that must have been generated in 
the inter-elliptical spaces, and take into account 
the effects which they must have had upon the 
forms of the primitive continents. We find that 
they would natui-ally tend to hollow out the tropi- 
cal continents on theii' western sides, and to pro- 
duce much more serious effects upon the polar con- 
tinents. Xext we consider the changes of the sea- 
sons and their effects upon the currents, and con- 
sequently ujDon the relative positions of the north 
and south continents and oceans. We find 
that they tend to produce symmetry, by biing- 
ing each northern ocean dii'ectly oj^posite a south- 
em ocean, and each northern continent opposite a 
southern continent. Having thus settled these 
principles, ascertained the primitive fonns and 
positions, and made them standards of compari- 
son, — we are prej^ared to enquire how far the 
present actual map of the world, and of each 
continent and ocean, is a departui'e fi^om the 
primitive plan. We can also form some idea 
of the nature of the deranging processes, by the 
influence of which the present distorted map was 
produced. • 

The three tropical continents (see fig. 2,) of the 
primitive map are now imperfectly represented by 
South America, Afiica, and Australia. The three 
northern continents by Xorth America, north- 
western Europe, and north-eastern Asia. The 
three Antarctic continents, or projections of the 
primitive plan, have but a few vestiges remain- 



64 PHYSICAL 

ing. Graham's Land and South Shetland, project- 
ing from the Antarctic, opposite Patagonia, is a 
poor apology for a continent that should be the 
counterpart of North America. When viewed, 
however, on a polar projection map, Graham's 
Land, though small, has nearly the same form as 
North America. It should be remarked that it is 
pointed toward the north, as all the Antarctic 
projections are, and as, according to the geonomic 
theory, they should be. 

The other two primitive Antarctic continents, or 
projections, are much more defective. The Tas- 
man sea, which separates Australia from the Ant- 
arctic coast, is probably very shallow compared 
with the great oceans east and west of it ; and, 
therefore, when the physical map of the whole 
sea bed is completed, perhaps it will appear that 
a deformed submarine continent exists there. 

The southern side of Australia is probably hol- 
lowed out by local currents that flow north-west 
from the Antarctic coast. 



GEOGRAPHY. 

Figures 5 jl>t) 6. 

RALIA 



65 




66 PHYSICAL 

Figures 5 and 6 are well calculated to give a good idea 
of tlie geonomic tlieory. Figure 5 is a repetition of figure 3, 
and represents the northern hemisphere according to theory, 
while figure 6 represents the southern hemisphere as it 
actually exists. The form of the Antarctic continent is 
copied from Dr. Hitchcock's Geology of the Globe. The 
arrows on figure 6 represent very nearly the actual courses 
of the great southern currents. Their agreement with 
theory is remarkable. The positions of the lands in the inter- 
spaces are almost equally in harmony with geonomy. 

The nortliern continents seem to be developed to 
an enormons extent at the expense of those in the 
southern hemisphere. Is it not reasonable to sup- 
pose that the depression of one hemisphere was 
the cause of the greater elevation of the other? 
Not only is ther-e a disproportion and irregularity 
in the relative magnitudes of the continents, but 
also in their forms and relative positions. Com- 
pare Africa and Europe, with their short connect- 
ing isthmus or neck, and the narrow Mediterranean 
betweeen them, wdth Australia and Asia, their long 
disjointed neck, and the wide expanse of interven- 
ing^ water. 

The true primitive characters of Europe and 
Asia are also very much disguised. They are fre- 
quently spoken of as the " great continent," but 
geonomy informs us that this " great continent," 
includes not only two primitive continents, but 
also a large portion of the bed of the north Indian 
ocean. 



GEOGRAPHY. 

Figure 7. — Mcqy of the World 



67 




68 PHYSICAL 

Fig. 7 is a map of the world drawn on Mercator's pro- 
jection, rej^resenting, in a general manner, tlie ocean cur- 
rents, very nearly as they rim. The local currents are 
represented by mere arrow heads, — one moves north-west 
from the Antarctic ; another around Cape Horn ; another 
south-east into the Gulf of Guinea. One runs north-east 
along the Norway coast into the Arctic, and another south- 
west out of it along the east coast of Greenland. Notice 
that the directions of the local currents in the tropics are 
calculated to hollow out the western sides of the continents. 
These currents must have been very XDOwerful and effective 
when the continents were rising, and were only one or two 
hundred feet beneath the surface of the sea. It should be 
observed that Australia is hollowed out on its southern 
rather than its western side ; and this harmonizes with the 
fact that the south side of this continent is exposed to the 
effects of the cold local currents, that flow north-west from 
the Antarctic; and in this respect it differs from South 
America and Africa, which are hollowed out on the west, by 
the warm local currents of the tropics,, which flow easterly. 

Observe the remarkable triangular space formed by the 
mountains where north-east Asia is marked on the map. This 
is the proper geonomic form of the primitive continent accord- 
ing to our theory. It is analogous to North America and to 
Graham's Land. Notice the general parallelism of the ellipti- 
cal currents to the mountains on the borders of the conti- 
nents. The mountains are represented by zigzag lines. 
Observe the east and west running mountains of southern 
Europe and Asia, while the more primitive mountains run 
more nearly north and south. 

The dotted line on the great continent represents, in a 
general manner, the primitive course of the elliptical cur- 
rent. It flowed north-west through what is now the Red 
Sea, just as the analogous current in the Atlantic now 
flows north-west through the Caribbean Sea. It turned 
and flowed north and north-east on the east side of 



GEOGEAPHY. 69 

the Scandinavian mountains, just as now the gulf stream 
flows' north-east on the east side of the Alleghanies. 
It moved east to north-east Asia, just as the guK stream 
now flows east to Europe. It turned south-east and 
then south-west, and flowed to the equator, just as the 
analogous Atlantic current now does. It is well known 
to geologists, that, lq the carboniferous period, more 
than three-fourths of the land within the dotted circle on 
the map was beneath the sea. The northern half of 
Africa, and the southern half of Europe was in the same con- 
dition : of course a '*' gulf stream" must then have circulated 
in the north Indian ocean. 



Prof. Guyot remarks that there is a north and 
south Pacific, and a north and south Atlantic, 
but, he adds, "the Indian is only half an ocean." 
This is true, but the other half existed (geological- 
ly speaking) but a short time ago. To satisfy our- 
selves of this, we have only to study a geological 
map. We there find that a short time before the 
tertiary period, more than two thirds of Europe 
and Asia were covered by a north Indian ocean. 
The Alps and the Himalaya mountains were most- 
ly beneath the sea. In a word, three double 
oceans then existed. 

The progress of the elevation of the land around 
the ancient north Indian ocean, was from the north 
toward the south and east, in Europe ; and from 
the north toward the south and west, in Asia. 
Scandinavia, and a part of north-western Russia, 
were the first portions of Europe that were raised 
above the sea. The elevation next extended to 



10 PHYSICAL 

Germany, Britain, France and Spain. Western 
Europe was advancing toward Africa, and tlie 
Mediterranean was becoming narrower. The 
Euxine, the Caspian, the Persian, the Red, the 
Arabian, and the MediteiTanean, were one great 
connected ocean ; into the midst of which islands 
were beginning to rise, and peninsulas to project, 
some of which were destined to become the bases 
of the Pyranees, the Juras, the Appennines, the 
Caucasian and the Alpine mountains of our age. 
The Sca]idinaYians constituted, at first, the wes- 
tern boundaries of the north Indian ocean. But, 
as the elevated plains extended eastward, the 
boimds were transferred to the Urals, which were 
elevated by the subsidence of the Siberian basin. 
The northern part of the north Indian ocean was, 
at one time, divided into east and west basins by 
the Ural mountains, which were then islands ; but 
after Europe became elevated, this ocean was limi- 
ted to the Siberian basin. At length, that also 
was elevated and drained. In Asia it was the 
north-eastern j)art, where the mountains run north- 
erly, that rose first : an independent, isolated con- 
tinent, of a triangular form, wide at its northern 
base, and pointed southward, if we may judge by 
its present mountams. It was washed on the east 
by the Pacific, and on the west by the north Indi- 
an ocean. India and southern China were prob- 
ably volcanic islands. The tropical waters of the 
Arabian sea poured a warm "gulf stream" north- 
east, and along the eastern side of the Urals, into the 



GEOGKAPHY. Yl 

arctic ; giving to Siberia a temperate climate, where 
now perpetual winter reigns. 

EAST AND WEST RUNNING MOUNTAINS. 

The remark is frequently made by geographers, 
that the principal mountains of southern Europe 
and Asia run nearly east and west, while those of 
all other parts of the world run more nearly north 
and south. Why are the mountains in this part of 
the great continent an exception to those of all 
the rest of the globe ? We know that the moun- 
tains of north-west Europe and north-east Asia 
were created first, and these run north and south. 
The locality where the mountains run east and 
west is where geonomy teaches us that the north 
Indian ocean once existed. This is the only one of 
the six great ocean basins that has been elevated ; 
and it is to be expected that it should therefore be 
exceptional in its physical structure. Geology 
demonstrates that the east and west running 
mountains of the great continent were not created 
until after the normal continents of Europe and 
Asia were. The Ural mountains, that run nearly 
north and south, were created after the Scandina- 
vians were : probably the Altai mountains were ele- 
vated at nearly the same geological time. Siberia 
was thus made a separate basin ; bounded by the 
Stanovoi mountains on the east, the Urals on the 
west, and the Altai on the south. Nearly the 
whole of southern Europe and Asia was then be- 
neath the sea. We learn from geological surveys. 



72 EAST AND WEST 

that altliousfli the Ural and the Altai mountains 
were among the first that were elevated, the Sibe- 
rian basi7i remained beneath the sea xmtil the latter 
part of the tertiary period, and probably a portion 
of it still later. I believe that the Altai mountains 
have abrupt slopes on their northern sides ; thus in- 
dicating that the Siberian basin, relatively, sunk 
beneath its weight, while the Altai mountains were 
rising. The Siberian basin was probably analo- 
gous to the Mississippi valley, in this respect, that 
while the depressions oi the great oceans caused 
the gradual elevation of the whole continent, the 
sinking of the Siberian basin, in its central parts, 
caused relative interior depressions, and abrupt 
slopes. 

For the same reason that the depression of the 
north Atlantic caused the Scandinavians to run 
nearly north and south, and the depression of the 
north Pacific and the Ochotsk sea, caused the Stan- 
ovoi mountains to run in the same dii^ection — the 
depression of the western extremity of the Sibe- 
rian basin, caused the Urals to run north and south. 
Reasonino^ in the same manner in reo-ard to the 
Altai, and the other mountains that run east and 
west, we say that they necessarily run in that di- 
rection, because the basins that created them did 
so. The Altai had on their north side the Siberian 
sea, and on the south the southern two-thirds of 
the ancient north Indian ocean, which then ex- 
tended east and west Jfrom Britain and France to 
China. The depression of this ocean would of 



KUXNIXG MOUXTAIXS. 73 

course produce east and west mountains. From 
that time to the present this ocean has been re- 
treating southward, followed by the succession of 
east and west mountains and plateaus that now 
constitute the principal portions of southern Asia 
and Europe. These elevations were the conse- 
quences of the repeated depressions of the Indian 
ocean south of them.* 

In the north Atlantic, between Newfoundland 
and Ireland, is an elevated region beneath the 
sea, which has lately been called the telegraphic 
plateau. It runs irregularly east and west; and 
was undoubtedly created by the depression of the 
ocean's bed at the south of it. It is probably still 
rising. The volcanoes upon the northern islands, be- 
tween Europe and America, and the gradual eleva- 
tion of the north of Sweden, while the southern 
part is sinking ; the depression of the southern part 
of Greenland, while Iceland is overflowing mth 
rivers of lava ; — all this indicates that the process 
which has gone on to consummation in the north 
Lidian ocean, is being repeated in the north At- 
lantic. The same i)rocess is also going on, and 
is much further advanced, in the north Pacific. 
Between Asia and America the mountain ranges run 



*XoTE.— "It is hardly to be doubted, from the geological e-vidence already 
collected, that the whole monntain-raiige from %yestem Europe through 
the continent of Asia, including the Alps, the Caucassus and the 
Himalayas, was raised at the same time. A convulsion that thus made 
a gigantic rent across the continent, giving egress to three such moun- 
tain ranges, must have been accompanied by a thousand fractures in 
contrary directions."— Agassiz's Geological Sketches. 

7 



74 PHYSICAI. 

nearly east and west; so do the Aleutian islands, 
and their chain of active volcanoes, that extend 
in a curve around the borders of a basin which, 
when elevated, may be regarded as the analogue of 
the Siberian basin; while the Aleutians will re- 
semble the Altai. 

Assuming that there were originally six sinking 
ocean basins, the lava crowded from beneath them 
would be forced to rise by elevating those neigh- 
boring intermediate parts of the earth's crust, 
upon which the deposits of sediment were least 
weighty. As the sediment would mostly fall be- 
neath the paths of the currents, or be collected 
within the limits of the elliptical circuits, the 
smallest amount of deposits would be made in the 
angular inter-elliptical spaces; these therefore would 
become elevated, and constitute the normal con- 
tinents. If, in consequence of the derangement of 
the currents, one or more of the rising continents, 
or parts of continents, should become included in 
the circuits of the cmTcnts — then such included 
parts would be loaded with sediment, and caused to 
subside again, and the subjacent lava be forced to 
rise in other places, beyond the limits of the aque- 
ous ellipses. Again, if, from any cause, one of the 
six sinkingr basins did not accumulate as much 
weight of sediment within its limits as the other 
five did, it would not sink as deep ; and the others 
would, by virtue of their superior weight, force 
their subjacent lava underneath the lighter basin, 
and thus produce its elevation above the sea. This 



GEOGEAPHY. 75 

is evidently wliat has happened to the north In- 
dian basin. 

The land in the northern hemisphere, is, when 
compared Trith that in the southern, as three to 
one. The lava that has been forced fi*om mider 
the southern basins, has been driven up under the 
northern continents, which have thus been made 
of more than tAvice the normal size. As the lava 
came from the south, it forced itself imder the 
nearest, or extreme southern parts of the northern 
continents, and thus caused their extension m a 
southern direction. The progress of elevation in 
America and in Asia was south and west, in Eu- 
rope it was south and east : in all three cases the 
continents were abnormally extended in a southern 
direction. The elevation and drainino; of the north 
Indian basin was commenced by enlarging, in a 
southern direction, the two northern continents 
which then partially bounded it. Asia extended it- 
self south and west to Afiica, and Em-ope extended 
itself south and east to Africa ; so that between the 
three continents, the north Indian ocean became 
landlocked; and the former fi-ee communication 
with the waters of the equatorial region was cut 
off. Its elliptical ciiTulation being thus rendered 
imperfect, or entirely destroyed, the accumulation 
of sediment became gradually less ; until at length, 
like the weaker power in all contests, it was forced 

XoTE.— Akago has suggested that the bottom of the Indian ocean must 
be composed of very weighty materials, to counter-balance Asia in the 
opposite hemisphere. 



76 PHYSICAL 

to succumb to the greater weights in the three 
neiorhborin^ ocean basins. 

In Europe, the southern progress of the conti- 
nent was arrested by the vicinity of Africa, which 
served as a protection to the Mediterranean, and 
prevented its bed fi*oin being entirely elevated. 
To imderstand this, we must consider that Africa 
was elevated simultanously with north-western Eu- 
rope. When, therefore, the three neighboring great 
oceans began to encroach upon the north Indian 
basin, by crowding lava under it from beneath 
themselves, the continent of Africa prevented, by 
its position, any lava from being crowded under 
that side which bordered upon Africa. The lava 
from under the Atlantic could elevate Spain and 



Note.— ''Recent researches have shown that an immense region around 
the Black, Caspian and Aral seas, and extending on the east side of the 
Uralian mountains, through Siberia to the North sea, was, during the 
latter part of the tertiary period, covered by brackish water, such as 
that which now fills the Caspian. In other words, that sea, during a 
long period, had that immense extent, and was not directly connected 
with any ocean. 

It is probable that during the tertiary period the water of the ocean 
flowed through the valley of the St. Lawrence, so as to separate the Al- 
leghanies from the hypozoic region around Hudson's Bay, as well as from 
the Eocky mountains, forming, in fact, three large islands of North 
America. 

During the period in which the palsezoric rocks were in the course of 
deposition, America was divided into six large islands — three in North 
and three in South America. The Ozark mountains also formed a small 
island, or bank, in advance of the long island of the Rocky mountains. 
In Africa, a large part of the continent formed a single island. In Europe^ 
Scandinavia constituted the largest island, while the Urals formed an- 
other, and six or eight smaller ones existed. In Asia, there were from 
three to five, though one of them was vastly the largest.— Hitchcock'! 
Geology of the Globe." 



GEOGRAPHY. 77 

France at the western extremity of the Mediter- 
ranean ; and that from under the Arabian sea could 
elevate Arabia, at the eastern extremity; while 
the lava from beneath the sinking basin of the 
Mediterranean itself, elevated the Atlas mountains, 
the Appenines, and the Alps, around its own 
borders ; but it was not practicable for the great 
ocean basins to force their lava in the proper di- 
rection to undermine this sheltered basin. K the 
place of Africa could have been occupied by an 
ocean like the Indian, I have no doubt that the 
place of the -Mediterranean would have been filled 
by a range of mountains like the Himalayas. 



18 



physical 
Figure 8. 




GEOGRAPHY. 79 

Fig. 8 is a representation of the American series of three 
continents. The antarctic continent of Graham's Land be- 
ing represented as extending to the south i)ole and the arctic 
to the north pole. I requested the artist to otherwise pre- 
serve the forms and proportions as they actually exist ; my 
object being to- show that Graham's Land is merely an im- 
perfect repetition or counterpart of North America ; and Pata- 
gonia a counterpart of Central America, so called. In re- 
ality, according to geonomy, Graham's Land is South 
America, and South America, so called, is Central America. 
The hollowing out of the tropical continent on its western 
side is well exhibited, so also are the local currents which 
probably caused it. On the eastern side, there being no 
local currents, but only the great elliptical currents, the 
pointed form of the continent at cape St. Roque, corresponds 
with this fact, and harmonizes with theory. 

The large arrows represent the great elliptical currents ; 
and it will be readily conceived that were it not for the 
effects of the local currents, the western sides of the tropical 
continents would have been pointed just as the eastern sides 
are. 

The American series of continents has departed 
less from the primitive plan than the other two 
series have. This is doubtless owing to the fact 
that the American is the only one of the three se- 
ries that has had two great oceans on the east, and 
two others on the west of it. Had the north In- 
dian ocean maintained its integrity, instead of 
having its bed elevated and drained, the other two 
series of continents would have exhibited a much 
more striking resemblance to the Americas. 

The triple series of continents is so j^lainly in- 
dicated, that it has been recognized, and is men- 



80 PHYSICAL 

tioiied, by several eminent geographers. Johnson, 
in his great physical atlas, speaks of all the con- 
tinents as being " equal to three Americas." Guyot 
denominates them "three double worlds." Geo- 
nomy demonstrates, that primitively they were 
three trij^le worlds ; and this would now be evident 
enough if the antarctic projections were normally 
developed. 

Fig. 9 is made to represent the outlines of tlie three series 
of continents as they would appear if the north Indian 
ocean basin had not been elevated. This simple illustration 
conveys a better idea of the geonomic theory than a hundred 
pages of verbal explanation. The analogy between the 
eastern points of Africa, of Australia and of South America 
is here apparent. So also is the relation of these three points 
to the elliptical currents that turn from the equator and flow 
north-west and south-west. 

We can now readily perceive the analogy of the Red sea 
and the Mediterranean, to the Caribbean sea and the Gulf 
of Mexico ; and the analogy of both to the East Indian seas. 
This diagram enables us to appreciate the remark that " all 
the continents together are equal to three Americas." 

Is it not evident that instead of the currents being turned 
aside by the eastern projection of America, that projection 
was originally created by the currents ? The primitive 
function of the Red sea can now be perceived. 'The current 
formerly ran through it into the Mediterranean, and thence 
north-east into the Arctic. Observe how much the form of 
Asia, in the diagram, resembles that of North America. 
Observe that Australia now appears to be only the southern 
portion of a continent, of which the islands north of it were 
once a part ; its analogy to South America and to Africa is 
thus made more apparent. 



GEOGRAPHY. 
FiGUKE 9. 



81 




82 PHYSICAL 

Professor Hitchcock, in his geology of the globe, 
says : 

" The form of North and South America appears to be the 
type of all the other continents, if we unite Africa to Europe, 
and New Holland to Asia. This renders it probable that 
their forms are not accidental, hut resulted from the mode in 
which the internal forces acted.'' 

If the Atlantic had been as large as the Pacific, 
the Americas would have been still nearer to the 
primitive type ; and the mountains on the eastern 
sides would have been as high and regular as those 
on the western. 

The mountainous edges of the continents rose 
first, and the lava was not crowded under theu' in 
teriors until a long time afterwards. The whole 
rose gradually but irregularly; more upon one 
side than upon another. Xaturally any land would 
rise most on the side next to the largest ocean. 

Every mountain has its abrupt slope toward 
the basin, the subsidence of which produced the 
elevation of that mountain. When a continent, or 
any large area of the earth's crust, was rising, the 
central portion generally became depressed — or rel- 
atively depressed — while the exterior edges were 
rising ; that is to say, the exterior and siuTounding 
parts rose more rapidly than the interior. The 
great interior seas, and large lakes, can be ac- 
counted for on these principles. The Caspian is in 
a basin, the bottom of which is protected from the 



GEOGRAPHY. 8 

invasion of lava waves by its distance from the 
great oceans. This whole middle region, however, 
from Portugal to China, has, during the historic 
period, and indefinite ages before, been liable to be 
disturbed by earthquakes, produced, as all earth- 
Cjuakes are, by movements of lava fi'om beneath 
the great ocean basins. These earthquakes tend 
to adjust the balance, which must be constantly 
maintained, between the continents and the heavy 
ocean beds, whose weights maintain the dry lands 
in their elevated positions. 

The American lakes seem to puzzle geologists ; 
but, by the light of geonomy, they appear to re- 
sult naturally, from the depressions of the two 
great oceans east and west of them. 

I presume that Hudson's Bay was the interior of 
the primitive Xorth American continent. A small 
part of the Atlantic ocean current flowed north- 
east through lake Erie, lake Ontario and the river 
St. Lawi-ence. The lands at the east of this chan- 
nel were large continental islands, which gradually 
rose and obstructed the channel, until onlv the 
present lakes and the St. Lawrence river were left. 

On the west side of Hudson's Bay was another 
channel, in which a small portion of the cold cur- 
rent floAved south-east along the line of lakes Win- 
nepeg, the lake of the Woods, Superior and Mich- 
igan. The Gulf of Mexico then extended north 
nearlv as far as the sjreat lakes ; and western North 
America was a continental island. The lava from 
under the Atlantic has not elevated the beds of 



84 CURVES OF MOUNTAINS AND ISLANDS 

Erie, of Ontario or of the St. Lawrence, nor 
that from under the Pacific, the beds of Winnepeg, 
Superior and Michigan. These regions are, how- 
ever, frequently disturbed by earthquakes, and will 
probably continue to be so until the lakes shall 
cease to exist. 

CURVES OF MOUNTAINS AND ISLANDS AND 
THEIR CAUSE. 

It has been remarked by geographers that no 
mountain range, and scarcely a single mountain, 
is straight. The long ranges of mountains curve 
toward the great oceans. K we attentively study 
the chain of continental islands, that extend along 
the eastern coast of Asia — the Aleutians, the Kurile, 
the Japan — we observe that each is convex toward 
the great ocean, and concave toward the minor 
sea that divides it from the Asiatic continent. 
The explanation is, that a large area of the bed 
of the ocean, along the eastern shore of Asia, is 
rising. This rising area is broken up into a chain 
of minor basins, the centres of which are relatively 
depressed, and the islands constitute the outer 
edges of the basins. Of course, it is natural that 
the islands, under these circumstances, should be 
concave towards the interiors of the minor basins. 
The same explanation aj)plies to Cuba and the An- 
tilles. 

Bringing these princij^les to bear upon the moun 
tains in the interiors of the continents, we are en- 
abled to form some idea of their origin, and the 



AXD THEIfi CAUSE. 85 

causes of their slopes and curvatures. Many of 
them were primitively continental islands, concave 
toward a basin which is now elevated and drained 
to constitute a plateau. 

The Asiatic and European systems of mountains 
that run east and west, are the boundaries of sev- 
eral chains of basins, analogous to the series of 
basins that now exist along the eastern shore of 
the great contment. The origin of the spurs or 
transverse mountains, can now be understood. 
They result from depressions of the extremities of 
long: minor basins while the continent as a whole 
was rising. 

HOLLOWING OUT OF THE WESTERN SIDES OF THE 
TROPICAL CONTINENTS. 

I have remarked that the local currents would 
hollow out the western sides of the tropical con- 
tinents. If the oceans and continents had re- 
mained perfectly symmetrical, each tropical conti- 
nent would have been hollowed out, symmetrically, 
on each side of the equator. There would have 
been a hollow on the western side of Africa, north 
of the equator, similar to that on the south of it 
which is known as the gulf of Guinea. So also, 
there would have been a hollow on the western 
side of South America, north of the equator, simi- 
lar to that now existing in Peru. 

The greater development of the oceans in the 
southern hemisphere has caused the hollows to 
be more strongly marked there than in the north. 



86 HOLLOWIXG OUT 

The Guinea local current, and the analogous 
South American current are powerful and de- 
cided in their effects, but their counterparts in the 
northern hemisphere are of inferior importance. 
The " counter current " in the north Pacific, which 
runs eastward toward the coast of California, is 
unquestionably the imperfect representative of the 
local tropical current which once impinged on the 
western coast of tropical Central America. An 
analogous current, but still more imperfect and 
slight, exists on the shores of France, and in the 
vicinity of the Bay of Biscay. 

The southern part of Australia was probably 
hollowed out by the local currents that flow north- 
west from the Antarctic coast. I presume that 
there is a tropical local current, analogous to the 
Guinea cuiTent, that flows south-east among the 
islands north of Australia ; this, however, is only 
a theoretical inference, founded uj)on the analogy 
of their positions. 

Note.— The Mountains of the Moon.— The mountains of the moon 
are not analogous to those of the earth, nor to the volcanic craters to 
which they are often compared. Most of the elevations are called riDg 
mountains, because they are circular in form. The external part of the 
ring is elevated considerably above the general surface of the moon ; 
but the interior is a deep pit, the sides of which are almost perpendicu- 
lar ; and its bottom, instead of being depressed, is more or less elevated 
into a cone shaped mass, like the bottom of the inside of a wine bottle. 
Some of these pits are hundreds of miles in diameter, while others are 
too small to be distinctly seen, except under very favorable circum- 
stances. The longest ranges of lunar mountains are curved, the con- 
cave sides bein^ toward the centre of the moon's face. 

The only reasonable theory which I can conceive, to account for these 
mountains, is the foUo-^ing : 

In one part of her orbit the moon approaches 26,000 miles nearer to 



OF THE CONTIXENTS. 87 

the earth than in another part. In her primitive state, the moon was 
composed of a liquid substance. When she was nearest to the earth, the 
attraction of our planet caused her face to protrude ; and when it retired 
26,000 miles, the protrusion receded. When we consider that the moon 
keeps the same face constantly turned toward the earth, we can readily 
conceive that the alternate monthly protrusions and recessions would 
produce the very appearances which it now presents ; and which, as the 
moon gradually hardened, would become permanent. The convex bot- 
toms of the pits were probably produced by the last efforts made to 
protrude. If the earth's attraction had no agency in the matter, and the 
mountains were made by an internal force, acting in all directions 
toward the surface, the moimtaius and the pits would all have appeared 
oblique to us, excepting those in the central parts of the moon's face. 
Near the edges of the moon the pits would have all had their mouths 
turned outward. This is not the case. The elevations and depressions 
are made in the very directions which they would be if the force that 
made them had proceeded directly from the earth. 



SECTION VL 

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 

EACH rising continent was a plateau, or table 
beneath the sea, upon the top of which suc- 
cessive layers of sediment were rained during a 
long series of ages. This sediment, pressed and 
baked into rocks, folded into mountains and val- 
leys, and abraded by the ocean currents, now con- 
stitutes what are called geological formations. 
The organic remains which are mingled with the 
sediment, indicate the relative age and elevation of 
each formation. When the continents commenced 
rising, the animals that existed, and whose remains 
fell upon them, were of the lowest and most simple 
forms. It seems that the elevation of animals in 
the scale of beings, kept pace with the elevations 
of the continents from the bottom of the sea ; as if 
there was some causal connection between the two 
classes of phenomena. As the continents rose higher, 
the submarine climates, scenery and circumstances 
become more various and complex; and adapted 
to sustain, if not to create a greater variety of or- 
ganic beings. When the continents rose above the 
sea, and the dry land came in direct contact with 
the atmosphere, it was like the creation of a new 
and higher world, adapted to beings of a nobler 



FOEMATIONS. 89 

order. This land was at first low, warm, moist and 
insular ; fitted only for reptilian life : but the lands 
continued to rise, and with them rose the ftale of 
organic beings. The digestive, respiratory, pre- 
hensive, intellectual and emotional organs became 
more and more special and complex, until at length 
man was introduced to wield the scepter of the 
world. 

It has been believed by a majority of geologists 
that the piimitive earth was inconceivably hot, 
and has been constantly cooling and contracting to 
the present time. I agree with Sii' Charles Lyell, 
that there is not sufficient evidence to warrant the 
admission of this hypothesis ; and that the proba- 
bility is that the gradual cooling of the continents 
has been caused by their gradual elevation. If all 
the lands were now to sink, except a few small 
islands, I have no doubt that the climate of the 
world would be such as geology indicates that it 
was in the carboniferous period. Those geologists 
who believe that the surface of the earth has 
gradually cooled from a molten state, regard the 
succession of geological changes as the natural re- 
sults of the cooling process. Theu' idea is that 
the whole earth, including the polar regions, once 
possessed a hot climate, on account of the radiation 
of internal heat ; and the succession of geological 
formations, together with oceanic depressions and 
continental elevations, are all the necessary con- 
sequences of the cooling process. 

Mr. Lyell thinks that the differences of climate 
8* 



90 GEOLOGICAL 

indicated by geology may be explained by the 
changes of level in the earth's crust. I would go 
furth^ and say, that all the geological phenomena 
may be regarded as the direct or remote effects of 
the same cause. The ^^rimary formations were 
probably deposited before the continents began to 
rise. While they were rising to the surface of the 
sea, the silurian formation was being created. The 
old red sandstone formation was produced when 
the edges of the continents were emerging from the 
ocean, and were subjected to the powerful abrasion 
of the currents, and the storms that agitated the sur- 
face of the sea. The carboniferous and coal forma- 
tion was produced when large areas of low, swampy 
lands had just risen a little above the sea, and were 
in some degree protected from the ocean by the 
higher rocky shores. The succeeding formations 
were produced in local basins, lagoons, or inland 
seas, where the materials derived from the land 
were mingled with those in the sea ; and where the 
terrestial productions predominated more and more 
over the marine, as the continents rose higher and 
liio;her. 

I regard all geological and all organic changes 
as the direct or indirect results of depressions and 
elevations of the earth's crust. The same con- 
ditions which were necessary to the production of 
the lowest geological formations, were also favora- 
ble to the creation of the lowest forms of organic 
life. When the continents rose higher, the natural 
and organic forces acted under different conditions, 



FORMATIONS. 91 

and, therefore, produced different organisms. If 
all those conditions are not now understood, that is 
a sufficient reason why we cannot yet account for 
the progressive elevation of organisms in a perfect- 
ly satisfactory manner. 



SECTION vn. 

ECONOMY OF VITAL FORCE AND ITS RELATION TO 
THE ORGANIC SCALE AND TO THE ELE- 
VATION OF CONTINENTS. 



I 



T is certain that from the earliest geological- 
ages to the present time, there has been a 
gradual improvement of organisms. Not only has 
there been an advance in the intellectual and emo- 
tional characters of conscious beings, but a similar 
progression is demonstrable in every dej^artment 
of organic nature. They have all made successive 
advances fi'om the lowest, most general, and simple 
modes and forms, to the most complex and special- 
ized. So much is this the case that some modern 
philosophers assume that there is, in the very na- 
ture of all organisms, a mysterious principle of 
progress, a law of developement, by virtue of 
which certain- inherent, latent powers, faculties and 
org^ans are evolved in a natural succession and or- 
der of creation. Another class of reasoners at- 
tribute the progress of organic beings to the in- 
fluence of external circumstances, operating upon 
organs during a succession of generations, and 
stimulating them to special developements ; the 
improvements of one generation being retained, and 
transmitted with additions to the next, and so on, 
during a long series of ages ; the present ex- 



VITAL FOECE. 93 

isting organisms being the results of those ac- 
cumulations. A strong indication of the insuf- 
ficiency of this doctrine is found in the fact, that 
the progressive principle pervades some depart- 
ments of organic nature, where no cii'cumstances, 
with which we are acquainted, appear to be capa- 
ble of producing such effects. It is not difficult to 
imderstand that the intellectual and emotional na- 
tures of conscious beings might advance from gen- 
eration to generation, in consequence of the stimu- 
lus of associations, contests and natural selections. 
But this will not apply to the changes in the con- 
stitution of the blood, the developement of the 
lymphatics, the spleen, or mammilary organs in 
the higher animals ; nor to the changes of motion- 
less plants, from Howerless, seedless, fiwtless forms, 
to those possessed of the highest characters of 
beauty and complication, with the addition of 
instincts that seem to rival the sexual and pa- 
rental affections of the higher animals. 

The differences among animals of the same 
species are termed varieties^ and are admitted by 
all writers to be the results of various physical in- 
fluences, such as climate, food, and scenery. But 
the differences of sjyecies^ are by many of the ablest 
naturalists, believed to have been coeval with the 
creation of the first ancestors of the several spe- 
cies, and to continue in spite of the external in- 
fluences that produce varieties. 

A powerful argument in favor of this doctrine is 
drawn from the fact that in examining the sue- 



94 ECONOMY OF 

cessive geological formations, new species appear 
to be suddenly introduced, so widely differing 
from any previously known, that it is thought 
their existence cannot possibly be accounted for by 
those gradual and progressive changes, by which 
external influences are supposed to affect organ- 
isms. 

It has been observed that those apparently 
sudden catastrophes, as they are called, by which 
new mountain ranges have been elevated, have in- 
variably been followed by the introduction of new 
and higher species of organisms. Are we to infer 
from these facts, that gradual elevations caused 
those slight changes only which constitute varie- 
ties, while catastrophes — j^roduced by sudden great 
depressions of the ocean's floor — originated species ? 
Is a new species a perpetuated and multiplied quasi 
monstrosity, engendered and developed under new 
and peculiar conditions, and economically adapted 
to them ? 

A large and highly respectable class of thinkers, 
despairing of any natural solution of the problem, 
attribute the succession of advances in organisms 
to the repeated miraculous interpositions of the 
Supreme Creator. It appears to be natural for a 
religious mind to explain all the mysterious phen- 
omena of nature in this manner; and when, after- 
wards, it is found that the facts thus supposed to 
be explained, result from the operation of a natural 
law, it almost seems as if the Creator is dej^rived 
of a part of his glory; and our religious feelings are 
prone to rebel against scientific advances that thus 



VITAL FOECE. 95 

appear to be made at the expense of our theological 
opinions. But, in our zeal, we must not forget that 
the Supreme Being is as much the author of the 
natural laws by which material beings are formed, 
as He is of the results which we denominate mirac- 
ulous. To my mind it is a much more wonderful 
exercise of Almighty power and wisdom to estab- 
lish an eternal law by the operation of which, 
imder certain conditions, a given result must al- 
ways follow, than to perform a single and ex- 
ceptional act, on a special occasion, in contraven- 
tion of his own natural laws. If a single act of the 
Creator is a miracle, each one of his natural laws 
is continually producing miracles. 

There appears to be a natural law, hitherto un- 
recognized, which underlies all the phenomena of 
organic progression. I denominate it the law of dy- 
namical economy, or, the economization of organic 
force. The advantage which is gained by any ad- 
vance in the oro'anic scale is that it economizes 
force. It produces a given result in a superior, 
because more economical, manner. In the lower 
organisms a great number of supernumerary parts 
abound, which, in the higher organisms of the 
same class are dropped, and only the few that are 
absolutely necessary are retained. Upon these few 
the vital enero^ies are concentrated, renderino* them 
highly effective. As an instance, contrast the 
lowest insects with the highest — the centipede and 
the caterpillar, and their indefinite number of loco- 
motive appendages, with the spider, the bee and 



96 ECONOMY OF 

the butterfly that have but six. Again, contrast the 
great number of eggs produced each year by the 
lowest fishes, to perpetuate their species, with the 
few produced by the shark to accomplish the same 
object. It would not be difficult to -prove that all 
the instances of the developement of special organs, 
and the additions of special functions, which dis- 
tinguish the higher from the lower classes of ani- 
mals, has economy for its purpose. But in this 
brief article I only wish to announce the general 
law, and leave its more particular illustration to 
some fixture occasion. 

The advance of animals in intelligence, seems to 
be but one of the modes in which this economic 
law is manifested. The advantage gained by the 
more intellectual animals over those of lower 
grades, is that they can accomplish the same ends 
with a lesser expenditure of force, or of time, or 
with less difficulty or danger. Intelligence is econ- 
omic of physical force. Animals are organic ma- 
chines, and the higher animals are labor saving 
machines. Dynamical laws underlie the scale of 
org^anic beino-s. The brains of animals are labor- 
saving in proportion to their comj^lication, and the 
degrees of their developement. The brain of the 
philosopher saves labor by creating machinery as 
a substitute for muscular power. The ability to 
economize force and use it to the best advantage, 
constitutes the difference between the ape and the 
savage, the savage and the philosopher. The 
question now arises — whence came the necessity 



VITAL FORCE. 97 

for the higher organisms economizing force ? why- 
must they economize it more than the lower? The 
answer is, that the whole quantity of available 
force has been constantly diminishing ; and in many 
situations organisms have been forced to perish, or 
to undergo economic changes of structure and 
function. Organic force, in its primitive nature, is 
the same as any other natural force. All the forces 
of natui:e are identical, though they assume dif- 
ferent forms or modes of manifestation. Heat, 
light, electricity, muscular force, machine force and 
vital force, are all one and the same force in different 
disguises. All the force in the earth exists under 
these and analogous forms. It is distributed un- 
equally to different substances. Some substances 
have a large quantity of latent force, others have 
but little. The same substance may contain a 
great quantity under some circumstances, and lose 
it imder others. Some elastic substances retain 
force with great tenacity, and others part with it 
readily. Xo substance can acquire force except 
from other substances. All the force acquired by 
organic bodies, therefore, is taken from other bodies 
which resist the change with greater or less ten- 
acity. 

As the continents rose from the bottom of the 
sea, their heat was radiated away. The continents 
became colder. Free force was scarcer, and latent 
force was retained more tenaciously. Now, when 
we consider that the functions of organisms caused 
them to abstract the latent force from surrounding 
9 



98 VITAL FORCE. 

things, and convert it to organic force, — it is plain 
that as force became more and more difficult to ob- 
tain, that which was acquired would be used more 
and more economically and advantageously. 

This I conceive to be the secret of the progres- 
sive advancement of organized beings. Moisture 
contains a large quantity of latent force, which 
organisms can appropriate. As the continents have 
risen higher, moisture and free heat have become 
less in quantity, and have been retained with more 
tenacity; organisms have therefore obtained it with 
more difficulty, and administered it with greater 
economy. 

If the continents were all to sink gradually, so 
that in a thousand human generations the lands 
were reduced to a few low, moist islands, — I have no 
doubt that all the higher organisms would become 
degraded : and if even those islands should disap- 
pear, and the ocean's bed resume its original level 
— during all this long period of depression, the 
scale of organic beings would indicate a corres- 
ponding depression, until only the lowest possible 
grades would remain in existence. 



SECTION vm. 

DRIFT FORMATION. 

AFTER tlie northern continents had assumed 
nearly theu' present forms and elevations, and 
the present geological period was about to com- 
mence, a sudden change occurred in the climate, 
which had always previously been warmer than it 
is now. It became so cold as to destroy nearly all 
the land animals in the northern half of the tem- 
perate zone. The hills were coA^ered with glaciers, 
the fields were clothed with ice and snow, and cur- 
rents of water from the Arctic rescion overflowed a 
large portion of the temperate zone. These currents 
carried south-eastward such an immense quantity of 
gravel and boulders, that it would seem that noth- 
insc less than the wreck of a continent could have fur- 
nished the materials. It was only the tops of the 
highest mountains that were out of the reach of this 
wonderful invasion. The duration of the drift 
period is unknown, but it is believed to have con- 
tinued many thousand years ; and when it ceased 
the climate assumed its present condition. 

The causes of the drift are unknown. Several 
ingenious theories have been suggested in relation 
to it, but none that accoimts for all the facts. It 
seems to be proved that a large portion of the 



100 DRIFT FORMATION. 

drifted territories were covered by glaciers, analo- 
gous to those which abound at the present time in 
some of the Alpine regions of Europe. The sur- 
faces of many rocks, over which the drift passed, 
are smoothed, and some of them scratched, in pre- 
cisely the same manner as those rocks are which 
glaciers are well known to have acted upon in 
Switzerland. In many places the ground is fur- 
rowed, or raised into groups of oblong mounds 
which glaciers alone could produce. Any proper 
theory of the drift must show: 1st, the condition 
of things previous to its commencement; 2d, the 
nature of the changes which caused the drift ; 3d, 
the changes which brought it to a close. It must 
also explain the existence of glaciers, boulders and 
gravel ; and, above all, why the course of the drift 
was south-east. 

I shall endeavor to show that the drift was 
caused by the operation of the ocean currents, 
while the Arctic lands were rising above the sea. 

Let us first endeavor to form a correct idea of 
the polar currents, before any of the land rose to 
interfere with them. There were three elliptical 
currents in the northern hemisphere, all of which 
approached within twenty-five degrees of the pole ; 
consequently there was a polar interspace, nearly 
three thousand miles in width, which had a ten- 

NoTE.— We have no clue to this great change.' * * * ^\ 
sudden winter that was also to last for ages fell upon the globe. * 

* * An Arctic climate prevailed in the temperate zone, and 
that of the temperate zone extended much farther south.— Agassiz's Geo. 
LOGICAL Sketches. 



DRIFT FOEilATIOX. 101 

dency to rise, and tln-ougli wliich local or seuii- 
elliptical currents flowed. Each of the ellipti- 
cal currents sent warm offsets, analogous to 
the present Norway current, noilh-east into 
the AiTtic sea. These three local currents all 
passed out of the polar interspace in a south-east 
direction as cold currents. Thus three semi-ellipti- 
cal local currents were created. Eeasoning theo- 
retically, we have good reason to conclude that 
such was the state of things at that time. When 
the lands beo-an to rise, thev interfered with this 
arrangement. The elevation of the north Indian 
basin stopped the current fi'om that ocean long 
before the drift commenced. The offsets fi*om the 
Atlantic and from the Pacific were probably con- 
tinued until the drift period. The Norway current 
is now the only one of importance that circulates 
throug-h the Arctic sea. It enters in a north-east 
direction, and finding no outlet south-east, is forced 
to become neutral and to escape between Green- 
land and Iceland. 

K the shores of the Arctic sea could now be 
lowered five hundred feet, what course would the 
cuiTcnts pursue ? Geonomy answers that a power- 
ful waiTU current would enter the polar sea fi'om 
the Pacific in a north-east direction, between Asia 
and America, and pass out south-east through Baf- 
fin's sea. If the passage fi'om Bafiin's sea should 
afterwards be gradually shallowed by the eleva- 
tion of the earth's crust, the current would over- 
flow the northern lands for a vast distance around, 
and repeat all the phenomena of the diift. 



102 DEIPT rOEMATION. 

Geonomy demonstrates that the drift was pro- 
duced by warm currents entering the Arctic sea 
north-east, and flowing from it in a south-east di- 
rection. All geologists agree that the drift, what- 
ever was its cause, moved in a south-east direction 
across both Europe and America. This fact, which 
is of vital importance now that the laws of the 
ocean currents are understood, has been, hitherto, 
regarded as of no special value, except as a proof 
that the drift currents moved from the Arctic re- 
ofions. But the south-east direction of the drift 
proves that it was the complement or continuation 
of a warm current, that entered the Arctic in a 
north-east direction ; for no other current would 
move south-east. The easting of the drift currents 
must have been acquired while they were warm, 
and before they began to flow into the Arctic sea. 
If a mountain were suddenly to rise at the north 
pole, the waters would not move from the disturbed 
centre south-east, but south-west; or, if an im- 
mense quantity of ice and snow should melt in the 
northern regions, the resulting currents would 
move south-west and not south-east. 

It must be recollected that the Arctic ocean was 
about 3,000 miles in diameter, and could, therefore, 
if disturbed, readily furnish the immense quantity 
of gravel, boulders, cold water and ice, which the 
drift theory and the actual facts require. 

The drift floods were probably annual. The 
polar lands were, in the mean time, gradually rising 
to the surface, and being abraded by the powerful 



DEIFT FOEMACIONS. 103 

currents that coursed through the Arctic sea. 
When all this is considered, we need not wonder 
that an enormous quantity of gravel and rocks 
were transported south-east, or that glaciers 
abounded during the drift period. 

To explain the drift in a general way, it is only 
necessary to say that the warm currents which 
passed into the Arctic from the Pacific, or from 
the Atlantic, or from both, were prevented, by the 
elevation of the ocean's floor, from passing out 
through their former channels ; they, therefore, 
overflowed the surrounding countries, and carried 
ice, gravel and boulders a great distance south-east, 
turning summer into winter, and causing immense 
quantities of snow and ice to accumulate upon 
lands that, both before and since, have been free 
from them during three-fourths of the year. 

The north-east direction of the Scandinavian 
mountains, proves that they were indirectly cre- 
ated by the Norway current that now runs north- 
east, and near them, into the Arctic sea. The regu- 
lar elliptical current would have made them run 
north-west, like the mountains in north-western 
America. This shows that the Norway current is 
very ancient, and has probably always supplied the 
Arctic sea with most of its warm water. It is re- 
markable, and worthy of special consideration that 
Baffin's sea, and several accessory channels, run 
south-east. This channel must, therefore, have been 
created by a powerftil current which once poured 
through it, into the Atlantic, in a south-east direc- 



104 DRIFT FORMATION. 

tion. Was it, then, the complement or continua- 
tion of the Norway channel ? Did nearly all the 
Arctic waters pass out through Baffin's sea ? and 
did the elevation of the northern part of the floor 
of that channel produce the drift ? Was there 
also a warm, jjowerful current that entered from 
the Pacific before the drift period, and which has 
since then been excluded ? However, these ques- 
tions may be answered after the geology of the 
Arctic regions is better understood — the undoubted 
fact must still remain, that the drift was caused by 
warm currents flowiuQ* into the Arctic sea north- 
east, and flowing out again south-east as cold cur- 
rents. 

If the drift was caused by the rising of the 
Arctic land, it was also brought to a close by the 
elevation of the shores of the Arctic sea, and the 
formation of a sufficient channel through which 
the currents can now move without overflowing^ 
their proper bounds. 

Is another drift period impossible ? Suppose 
that the channel between Greenland and Iceland 
should be obstructed by the elevation of its bed, — 
are the Arctic shores high enough to prevent 
the consequent flood from sweeping and spreading 
over the northern parts of the temperate zone? 

Much has been said of the north polar sea, but I 
have no where seen it suggested that there is also 
a polar sea in the southern hemisj)here,"though this 
is undoubtedly the case. There can, however, be 
no doubt that it is entirely and permanently frozen. 



DEIFT FOEMATION. 105 

The lands around the south polar continent are 
high and bluff, but probably the interior, near the 
pole, is a plain or basin, Tv^hich can be easily 
traversed when once the mountainous borders of 
the continent are surmounted. I should rather 
undertake to reach the south pole than the north; 
and I have no doubt that the journey might long 
since have been accomplished if half the sacrifices 
had been made for that purpose that have been 
made to reach the north pole. 
Dr. Hitchcock says : 

In Terre del Fuego is a deposit of boulders which were 
derived from ledges lying from sixty to one hundred and 
twenty miles to the south-west and west.— Hitchcock's 
Geology of the Globe. 

From this extract, and from other authorities, 
we learn that a drift period occurred in the south- 
ern hemisphere. Possibly it happened simultane- 
ous with the one in the north. That it was pro- 
duced by similar causes may be inferred from the 
fact that the dii-ection in which the boulders were 
carried was north-east and east. Xo mere local 
current could flow easterly from the polar region. 
It was, therefore, a warm current that entered the 
polar region, and returned, flowing north-east, car- 
rying boulders with it. I do not believe that it 
was an elliptical or a local current, purely, but a 
semi-ellipse, which partakes of the nature of both. 

From the best information that I can obtain, I 
am convinced that the elliptical currents are in no 
10 



106 DRIFT FORMATION. 

cases the bearers of icebergs. They are conveyed 
by local currents only. Maury says that icebergs 
are conveyed from the southern part of the Indian 
ocean into the south Atlantic as far as the thirty- 
seventh degree of south latitude. They must move 
north-west to reach the Atlantic, and this is the 
very direction in which a local current would neces- 
sarily flow from the Antarctic. (See the map.) 



SECTIOX X. 

THE SYSTEM OF THE WINDS. 

THE study of the oceanic circulation has natu- 
rally led me to reflect upon that of the at- 
mosphere, and to enquire what different principles 
are brought into operation in the two systems. In 
order to make this theory more clear to our minds, 
let us first present it in its simplest form, divested 
of all the circumstances that render the problem 
complicated. 

Let us suppose the earth to be entirely covered 
with water; and thus leave out of our calculation 
all the disturbances now prodiiced by the elevations 
of the continents. Let us also overlook the effects 
produced by the changes of the seasons, and, for 
the time, suppose the days and nights to be always 
equal. Under these circumstances the sun's heat 
would be greatest exactly at the equator, and pro- 
gressively less in each successive parallel of lati- 
tude to the very poles. The dynamical problem 
now to be solved is, — what must necessarily be 
the system of the winds under these conditions ? 

The rays of the sun pass through the atmosphere 
without communicating much warmth to the air ; 
but, after striking the earth, the rays rebound, and 
warm the lowest portions of the atmosphere, 



108 



THE SYSTEM OF 




Figure 10. — System of the Winds. 
causing the air to expand 
and rise until it reaches 
a point where the atmos- 
pheric air is of the same 
density as itself. At the 
equator, where the earth 
is hottest, the greatest 
quantity of air is heated, 
and rises to the greatest 
height. From the ele- 
vated position which the 
most heated air attams, 
it moves, as if down an 
inclined plane, to the 
thirtieth degree, on each 
side of the equator; here 
it reaches the earth, and 
moves again to the equa- 
tor to repeat the circuit. 
The air also moves 
from the thirtieth dec^ree 
to about the sixtieth, 
where it rises and re- 
turns, as an upper cur- 
rent, to the thirtieth de- 
gree. It there sinks to 
the surface of the earth, 
and returns again to the sixtieth degree to repeat 
the circuit. 

From the polar regions the air moves along the 



eqV 



'^TM 



\^ 



..->^ 

:--^.. 



\ 




7P>^.. 



THE WINDS. 109 

surface to the sixtieth degree, where it rises and 
returns, as an upjDer current, to the polar regions, 
and there sinks to the earth's surface and repeats 
the circuit. 

This theorj' seems to be sustained by all the facts 
which are known concerning the actual directions 
in which the winds blow in the different zones. In 
the northern hemisphere, according to the best au- 
thorities, the winds blow as follows : in the torrid 
zone, from the north-east ; in the temperate zone, 
from the south-west ; in the frigid zone from the 
north, north-east, and north-west. In the southern 
hemisphere, reversing the directions, the same rule 
seems to obtain, and three zones of wind exist, the 
essential counterparts of those in the northern 
hemisphere. K there were no lands to produce di- 
versities of temperature, and no change of seasons, 
these three serial zones of each hemisphere would 
be developed with perfect unifonnity and regular- 
ity ; and even now their prevalence in their respec- 
tive limits, would seem to be sufficient to prove 
the existence of the general laio beyond all reason- 
ble doubt. 

Extract feom Nichols' Cyclopedia of the Physical 
Sciences. — On tlie nortliof the equator, between the parallel 
of the 30th and 60th degrees north, the wind is variable to the 
west and south-west. Between Europe and America the south- 
west prevail in the ratio of two to one. The mean direction of 
the xDrevailing winds in this zone, deduced from numerous 
observations, is, for England, south 68 degrees west; France, 
south 88 degrees west ; Germany, south 76 degrees west ; 



110 THE SYSTEM OF 

Denmark, south 62 degrees west ; Sweden, south 50 degrees 
west ; Russia, north 87 degrees west; North America, south 
86 degrees west. Russia is the only country in which the 
mean direction of the wind is a little to the north of west. 
In the north Atlantic, the most prevalent direction of the 
winds is between south 45 degrees west and south 10 degrees 
west. When the sun is in the northern hemisphere, they 
prevail from south-Avest to west south-west, but when he is 
in the southern hemisphere, they blow from west north-west 
to north-west. On the south of the equator it is observed 
that between the parallels of 30 and 50 degrees south, the 
winds blow periodically south-west ai^ north-west, that 
they vary west to north-west when the sun has south decli- 
nation ; whilst during the rest of the year they are in general 
from west to south-west. In the frigid zone of the Atlantic 
north winds are the most regular and dominant. The cold- 
est mnds are those from the north-north-east, but in June 
and July they frequently blow from the south south-west, 
and sometimes with violence. At Spitzbergen, during the 
earlier part of the year, the winds blow from the south, and 
they are northerly during the remainder. On the coast of 
Greenland, from May to July, the weather is fine with 
changeable winds mostly from the south south-west. The 
coldest winds are from the north-east. In Hudson's Bay it 
has been remarked that from October to May the winds are 
from the north to north-west, and from June to October 
south-east to east. Capt. McClure found the prevailing winds 
from the north-east along the American shore of the polar 
sea. Parry found that the wind in the arctic region blew 
from the northerly direction 215 days in a year, from the 
southerly direction 52 days, variable 100 days. 

If we reflect upon the subject, we must conclude 
that there are three zones of counter currents in 
the upper regions of the atmosphere : that there is 
in fact an upper counter current corresponding to 



THE WIXDS. Ill 

each lower current ; and that the two together con- 
stitute an ellipse, the position of which is not hori- 
zontal nor veitical, but between the two — that is, 
oblique to the plane of the earth's surface. 

It seems that two currents flow in opposite di- 
rections from the 30th deg:ree, at the earth's sur- 
face. The air that supplies both these currents 
must come from opposite directions above; for, the 
current that flows on the surface toiffi^d the pole, 
does not reach there before it is met by an oppos- 
ing current coming along the surface fron the pole. 
There is no outlet beloio for either. They must rise 
near the 60th degree, and, having risen, they must 
overflow in the same manner and for the same 
reason that the rising column at the equator does : 
one portion goes to the pole sinks and returns, the 
other portion goes to the tropic (30th degree) and 
there sinks and returns. The air oversows north 
and south at the equator and also at the 60th de- 
gree, and ii?ider^ows toward the equator, at the 
poles and at the 30th degree. The air rises and 
ovei'flows because it is expanded and rendered 
lighter by heat beloic, and it sinks and underflows 
because it has been condensed and made heavier 
by the cold above. 

In confirmation of this theory are the facts 
revealed by the barometer concernino; the differ- 
ences in the weight of the atmosphere in the dif- 
ferent zones. Near the equator, and near the 60th 
degree, the atmosphere appears to be lighter than 
elsewhere. These are the very places where, ac- 



112 THE SYSTEM OF 

cording to our theory, the air is ascending in con- 
sequence of its lightness. At the 30th degree, and 
also near the poles, the barometer testifies that the 
atmosphere is heaviest ; and it is in these places 
where, according to our theory, the heaviness of 
the air causes it to descend. The circulation of 
the atmosphere, according to this theory, is contra- 
dictory to our traditional ideas, and to all our 
authorities ^icerning the geographical sources of 
cold and warm currents. In the ocean the cold 
currents of water, in all cases, move toward the 
equator, and the warm currents in the opposite 
direction, but* in the atmosphere a difierent rule 
obtains. Warm currents of air are generated at the 
surface of the earth, and move upward; cold cur- 
rents are generated in the upper regions, and move 
downward. This is true in all latitudes. The 
circulation of the air, therefore, is not so much be- 
tween difierent latitudes as it i^ between difierent 
altitudes. It is not necessary for a current of air 
to move toward the polar regions to become 
cooled ; for it is as cold four or five miles above the 
surface at the equator, as it is at the surface in the 
polar circle. Now, when we consider the natural 
tendency of heated air to expand and rise, w^e may 

Note.— At the equator, and its neighborhood, the average height of 
the mercury in the barometer is 29.84 inches. At latitude 10 deg. the 
pressure or heighth begins to increase visibly, augmenting on toward 
latitude 30 or 40 deg. when it seems to reach its maximum, being there 
30.08 inches. Beyond this zone the mean height diminishes, descending 
in the arctic regions to 29.76 inches. According to some observations 
it would appear that the pressure once more increases on nearer ap- 
proach to the pole.— Nichols' Cyclopedia of the Physical Sciences. 



THE WrS-DS. 113 

well discard the common idea that the air moves 
poleward because it has been warmed, or toward 
the equator because it has been cooled. 

FnoM Mrs. Somertille's Physical Geography. — 
The mean height of the barometer between the tropics at 
the level of the sea is 30 inches, with very little fluctuaticn, 
but, owing to the ascending currents of air from the heat of 
the earth, it is less under the equator than in the temperate 
zones. It attains a maximnm in western Eiu'ope between 
the parallels of 40 and 45 degrees ; in the North Atlantic the 
maximnm is about the 30th parallel, and in the southern 
part of that ocean it is near the Tropic of Capricorn. It is a 
singular fact, discovered during Sir James Ross' last vovage, 
that the mean height of the barometer is an inch lower (the 
atmosphere is less heavy) throughout the Antarctic ocean 
and at Ca.]}^ Horn (ooth to 60th degree) than it is at the 
Cape of Good Hope (30th to 3oth degree) or Valparaiso. M. 
Erman observed a similar depression not far from the sea of 
Oschotsk, in eastern Siberia (near the 60th degree). Sir John 
Herschell has observed that on account of the upper flow of 
heated air not being immediately compensated by polar 
currents, the barometer is two-tenths of an inch liigher at 
the tropics than at the equator. 

My idea is that in every instance in which a sur- 
face current of air moves toward the pole, it does 
so because it is cold. The column which rises at the 
equator acquires its coldness and hea^'iness above, 
before it bes^ins to move to the 30th des^ree. The 
column that moves from the 30th degree poleward 
does so because it is cold. It has descended from 
above, and is seeking the vacuum which the heat 
at the surface is producing there, between the 30th 
10* 



114 THE SYSTEM OP 

and the 60th degrees. The current in the upper 
regions, which moves from the 60th degree to the 
pole, does so because when it has risen high enough 
to become chilled it begins to sink, by its own 
weight, to the polar surface, w^hich is compar- 
atively warm. A vacuum is being constantly 
produced there by radiations from the land, the 
water, and even from the ice and snow ; for, how- 
ever cold it may be within the polar circle at the 
surface, it is still colder a few hundred feet above. 

From Mrs. Somerville's Physical GEOGRArnY. — As 
there are eiglity-two degrees difference between the equa- 
torial and polar temperature, the light warm air at the 
equator is constantly ascending to the upper regions of the 
atmosphere and flowing north and south to the poles, from 
whence the cold heavy air rushes along the surface of the 
earth to supply its place between the tropics. * * 
The current from the north pole becomes a north-east wind 
before arriving at the Troi)ic of Cancer, and that from the 
south pole becomes a south-east wind before it comes to the 
Tropic of Capricorn, their limit being about the twenty- 
eighth parallel of latitude on each side of the equator. In 
fact, the difference of temperature puts the air in motion, 
and the direction of the resulting wind, at every place, de- 
pends upon the difference between the rotary motion of the 
wind and the rotary motion of the earth. The whole theory 
of the winds depends upon these circumstances. There is a 
perpetual change between the different masses of the atmos- 
phere, the warm air tempering the cold of the higher lati- 
tudes, and the cold air mitigating the heat of the lower. 

Mrs. Somerville, in her excellent treatise on 
physical geography, gives a correct idea of the 



THE WI jps. 115 

opinions current in the highest circle of philosophi- 
cal society in Europe ; and the preceding extracts 
show what those opinions" are in relation to the 
sources of the wind. It will be noticed that she 
confounds together two things which are entirely 
distinct, namely, the effects produced by the dif- 
ference of elevation, and those produced by the 
difference of latitude. She says in one place that 
" the light warm air at the equator is constantly 
ascending to the upper regions of the atmosphere 
and flowing north and south to the poles^ from 
whence the cold heavy air rushes along the surface 
of the earth to supply its place between the tropics." 
In another place she says : " The average direction 
of the winds, in England, France, Germany, Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Xorth America, is from some 
point between south and west. Xoith westerly- 
winds prevail in the corresponding latitudes in the 
southern hemisphere." This statement is doubt- 
less correct ; how then is it possible for her other 
remark to be true that " from the poles cold heavy 
air rushes along the surface to the tropics ? " 

The learned Professor Tyndall, in his beautiful 
work on heat, gives the same explanation that Mrs. 
Somerville does ; and it must certainly be admitted 
that all the highest authorities are opposed to this 
theory. Are they not also opposed to well known 
facts? 

If the wind blew as the water flows, from the 
equator to the polar regions before it began to re- 
turn, it would possess so much easting when it 



116 THE jOrSTEM OF 

anived that there would be a constant current 
blowing toward the east in both polar regions. 
This is not the case. We may, therefore, from this 
fact alone infer that these winds have traveled 
over but few degrees of latitude. 

TTe have hitherto proceeded upon the assump- 
tion that the sun remains at the equator, and the 
days and nights are equal. During the summer 
solstice, when the sun is in the north, more than 
half of the frigid zone becomes temperate, and 
more than half of the temperate zone torrid. The 
thermal equator being many degrees north, of 
course the three zones of wind are crowded in the 
same direction, and the north winds scarcely blow 
southward beyond the polar circle ; while the winds 
from the south and south-west blow across the 
borders of the arctic, and take possession of the 
abandoned territory in the frigid zone. In the 
winter, the reverse takes j^lace. The frigid zone, 
in turn, invades the temperate regions, and cold 
northern and north-eastern winds blow for months 
over countries that during the rest of the year 
know onlv southern breezes. In a word, the 
changes of the seasons merely transfer the three 
zones alternately north and south, without permit- 
ting either to be entirely conquered. The lines 
that divide the three serial zones from each other 
are still preserved unbroken and even unbent, ex- 
cept from local causes. These lines advance and 
retreat northward and southward with the change- 
ing seasons, like the parallel columns of two oppos- 
ing armies. 



THE WINDS. 117 

The irregularities of the Trincls which are the 
most complicated, are produced by the greater or 
lesser elevations of the land. In the tropics the 
land is hotter, that is, it communicates more heat 
to the air than the sea does. In the frigid zones, 
on the contrary, the land is colder and the sea com- 
municates more heat to the air. The reo:ular trade 
winds do not blow upon the land, nor within 100 
miles of the continents. This fact shows the great 
modifying influence of the land upon the normal 
system of the winds. The elevation of some por- 
tions of the land into mountains also has an effect 
upon the winds, by deflecting them from their 
projDcr courses, by intercepting and chilling the 
warm moist winds that blow against them, or by 
preventing the cold winds from sweeping over a 
particularly favored region. In order properly 
to estimate these modifying circumstances, we 
must first learn, by theory, the normal and i3rim- 
itive course of the winds in each and every locality ; 
and then look upon all departures from these direc- 
tions as the results of irregular elevations, and 
other local causes which are to be specially investi- 
gated. In the tropics, the normal trade winds 
should continually blow obliquely toward the 
equator, with more or less of westing in them ; but 
the extreme heat of some lands in the tropics 
causes the wind to vary from its normal course, 
and blow northward during one period, and south- 
ward during the next, so that these alternate or 
periodical winds are called monsoons or season 
winds. 



118 THE SYSTEM OF 

As the object of this essay is not to give a de- 
tailed account of all the local "winds, but to estab- 
lish a true general theory oi the normal AYinds, as 
a basis and point of departure, from which to 
reason concei^ning local and irregular winds, I shall 
not give any particular account of the monsoons or 
local season currents of air. Some of the winds 
which have hitherto been res^arded as local and 
capricious, are probably owing to the northern and 
southern movements of the sun, causing: a corres- 
ponding transfer of the limits of the respective 
zones of winds farther toward the north and the 
south alternately. These same changes would take 
place, but with much greater regularity, if the 
ocean covered the entire earth, and there were no 
land to produce iiTegularity : thus in England, and 
in Xorthern Europe generally, there is a contention 
of the north-east and the south-west winds, each pre- 
vailingr alternatelv, thougrh the southwest wind is 
the most continuous. The same is true in the cor- 
responding latitudes of Xorth ^\merica, excepting 
that here the northerly winds are more prevalent. 
So also in Russia the coldness of the land, acting as 
an auxiliary to the northerly wind, causes it to pre- 
vail during: most of the time, while, in the same 

~ 7 3 

latitude, in western Europe, southerly winds pre- 
dominate. The great quantities of heat derived 
from the neighboring contiaent of Africa, and the 
influences of the warm waters of the so-called 
Gulf stream, must be taken into the account of the 
European winds, and left out when considering 
those of America and Russia. 



THE WLNTDS. 119 

When the upper current of air from the equator 
descends at the 30th degree, another current from 
the opposite direction descends near the same place 
at the same time : one mores north and the other 
south. I have described the currents from the south 
as all returning to the south again, and the currents 
from the north as all g-oino- aeain northward. But 
this may not necessarily be always the case ; for, 
if the two currents should be very unequal in tem- 
perature or humidity, I can easily conceive that 
they might mingle, in some degree at least, so as 
to produce an eqiulibrium. There would probably 
be a collision and a partial interchange of currents, 
and in this way air, and even volcanic ashes, may 
perhaps be transferred from one zone or hemisphere 
to another. 

THE AUEORA BOEEALIS OR POLAR LIGHTS A^'D 
THEIR RELATION TO THE ATMOSPHERE. 

The phenomena of the polar lights have never 
been reduced to a consistent theorv. I have often 
thought, as I watched their fitftil changes, that 
they must be in some way connected with the at- 
mosphere. They seem to be associated with light, 
thin, silver-ojrev clouds, that an-angre themselves in 
rays, which are not as changeable as the lights 
themselves. I have lately been led to suspect that 
they may be produced by the sudden condensation 
of the moisture, in the column of wann air that 
rises near the 60th deg-ree of north and also of 
south latitude. "The auroral arch is always east 



120 AURORA OR 

and west, never north and south," and in this it 
agrees with the zones of the winds. M. Struve 
and Admiral Wrano-el assio-n a moderate elevation 
to the aurora. Thiereman, in Iceland, regarded 
the clouds as the substratum of the aurora. Frank- 
lin, Richardson and Wrangel confirm this idea. 
The clouds are thin and light, and it has been 
noticed that the rays are most abundant near them. 
Humboldt remarks that "these clouds seem to ar- 
range themselves like rays in the day time. After 
a display during the night, the same clouds are 
sometimes seen in the morning^ that before were 
luminous." "The most modern observers place the 
aurora in the region of the clouds ; they believe it 
to be blown to and fro by the wind. Capt. Frank- 
lin saw an aurora illuminate the loicer surface of a 
cloud." 

It has been observed that the aurora is most 
frequent and brilliant near the sea coast. Does 
not this indicate that the condensation of the mois- 
ture derived from evaporation is concerned in pro- 
ducing the phenomena? It is well known that 
thunder is seldom heard in the polar regions. Why 
is this ? Is it not because the moisture is con- 
densed and frozen before it has time to collect into 
large ctouds? It is known that the aurora is dis- 
played in the most remarkable manner during the 
changes of the seasons. This is what might be 
expected if it is produced by the column of air 
that rises from the zone of the 60th degree. 

At the equator, the immense quantity of moisture 



POLAK LIGHTS. 121 

that rises is formed into vast clouds, the condensa- 
tions of which produce tremendous thimder claps, 
and terrific flashes of lio'htnino-. At the 60th de- 
gree the rising column of warm air contains com- 
paratively little moisture, and that is probably- 
condensed as it rises, and before it has had time to 
form into large clouds, or to unite into rain drops. 
The heat thus suddenly set free is probably con- 
verted into electricity, which leaj)s from particle to 
particle, producing the auroral light, and disturb- 
ing the magnetic needle. 

Tliis theory of the northern lights could not have 
been advanced before it was known or even sus- 
pected that a column of warm air rises at the 60th 
degree. 

I suppose that lightning is nothing but latent 
heat, suddenly converted into electricity by the 
condensation of the clouds ; and that the aurora is 
merely a subdivided and diffused lightning storm, 
the separate flashes being too minute to produce 
thunder. Some observers have declared that they 
have heard cracklins; noises issuino; from the aurora 
— but this, though probable, does not seem to be 
fully confirmed. 

CYCLONES. 

Cyclones are whirlwinds which originate in 
certain localities near the equator. In the northern 
hemisphere they generally commence 10 or 15 de- 
grees north of the equator, and move north-west to 
11 



122 CYCLONES. 

near the 30th degree when they change their 
course and travel north-east. In the southern hemi- 
phere they proceed in the same manner, but their 
directions are reversed : that is to say, they com- 
mence a few degrees from the equator, and travel 
south-west to about the 20th degree, and then 
change their course and travel south-east. They 
obey a double movement : one a gyratory or rotato- 
ry, and the other a movement of translation. North 
of the equator this gyratory movement is from 
right to left by the north, or in a direction con- 
trary to the hands of a watch. South of the equator 
the movement is in a direction coincident mth the 
hands of a watch. The movement of translation 
is from 2 to 40 miles per hour. The whirlwinds 
vary in diameter from 50 miles to 1000. 

Several questions have long been asked concern- 
ing these cyclones without receiving any reason- 
able answer: 

1. Why do they originate in both hemispheres 
•at about 10 or 15 degrees from the equator? 

2. Why do they never cross the equator, or even 
approach very near to it ? 

3. Why do they infest certain particular locali- 
ties? 

4. Why do they, in the northern hemisphere, 
move north-west a certain distance, and then 
change their course to the north-east ? 

5. Why do they, in the southern hemisphere, 
pursue exactly the contrary course ? 

6. Why are these whirlwinds most frequent at 
the change of the seasons? 



CYCLONES. 123 

A true theory of the cyclones will answer all 
these questions. 

A whirlwind is a body of air, whirling like a 
top, which may be driven in any direction by a 
force that impels it by acting on one side of the 
mass, while on the oj)posite side it meets with but 
little resistance. The question then is : what force, 
in the northern hemisphere, acts upon the whirling 
mass to drive it in a north-west direction a certain 
distance and no farther? and why does it then 
turn and move north-east? We must consider that 
the trade wind in the southern hemisjohere blows 
toward the' north-west, and when a particular 
locality a short distance north of the equator is 
abnormally heated, the trade wind from the south- 
ern hemisphere crosses the equator into the north' 
em hemisj^here. It does not proceed far without 
encountering opposite currents, and a whirlT\dnd is 
created, which receives an impetus from the in- 
truding currents in a north-west direction, the di- 
rection in which the intruding trade wind itself is 
mo^dng. The north-west impulse, not being con- 
tinued or repeated, is soon exhausted, and, there- 
fore, the whirlwind no longer moves north-west. 
From this turning pointy which may be considered 
a neutral x^oint^ it moves north-east for the same 
reason that the normal wind and the ocean cur- 
rents both move in the same direction between the 
30th and 60th parallels. There is a perfect analogy 
between the path of the cyclone and that of the 
elliptical ocean current. They both pursue the 



124 CYCLONES. 

same course in the same localities. The elliptical 
current in the north Atlantic moves north-west 
from the equator to near the 30th degree, and then 
turns and moves north-east. The reason of this 
has been explained in another place, and the same 
principles apply to the course of the cyclones. 



RECAPITULATION OF GEONOMY. 

1. The ocean waters primitively covered the 
whole globe. The difference of temperature caused 
warm currents to flow poleward, and cold currents 
to flow from the poles. 

2. A current cannot flow alternately to and from 
the polar and ecjuatorial regions without pui^suing 
an elliptical path. The reason is that the easterly 
force which the water possesses in the lower lati- 
tudes is carried with it when it flows to the higher, 
and causes it to flow more and more easterly ; and 
when the current is cooled and begins to return to 
lower latitudes, the easting is not yet exhausted ; 
therefore, in the northern hemisphere the elliptical 
current moves south-east from the polar region ; 
but before it reaches the equator it turns and 
moves relatively south-west. After reaching the 
equator it moves nearly due west until its warmth 
causes it to overflow toward the pole ; and then it 
runs north-west a considerable distance before its 



KECAPITULATIO^'. 125 

westing is exhausted, and it begins to flow north- 
east. 

3. The easting which a current acquires in mov- 
ing poleward, and the westing which it acquires in 
moving toward the equator are both so great that, 
a cuiTcnt moving to and from the equator and the 
sixtieth deo-ree of latitude, must necessarily move 
in an ellipse, the diameter of which, east and west, 
is so great that not more than three such ellipses 
can exist in one hemisphere. This is the reason 
why, when there was no dry land, there were just 
three elliptical currents in the northern hemisphere, 
and the same number in the southern. 

4. The sediment of the ocean, which at first was 
mostly of a chemical or an organic character, fell 
in the largest quantities upon the ocean floor vrith- 
in the limits of the ellipses, or immediately be- 
neath the currents. The weio-ht of the accumu- 
lated sediment caused the crust of the earth to 
sink, and thus created an oceanic basin. Thus it 
was that six immense basins were formed, namely : 
the north and south Atlantic, the north and south 
Pacific, and the north and south Indian oceans. 

5. The lava crowded away from beneath these 
six basins was forced to rise in the angular spaces 
between them. These inter-spaces constituted 
three series of continents : Xorth and South Amer- 
ica and Graham's Land constitute one series ; 
north-east Asia, Australia and Victoria constitute 
a second series ; Europe and Afiica, and an indefi- 



126 RECAPITULATION, 

nite and partially submarine portion of the Ant- 
arctic continent, constitute the third series. 

6. Five of the six primitive ocean basins still 
exist ; but the sixth, namely, the north Indian, 
has been mostly elevated and drained. The Medi- 
terranean, Euxine, Caspian, Red, Persian, and 
Arabian seas are vestiges of the ancient north 
Indian ocean. The east and west running moun- 
tains of Asia and Europe were produced by the 
repeated depressions of the ocean south of them, 
after the noith and south running mountains were 
elevated. 

'Z. The primitive and normal mountains, on the 
borders of the continents, run in loxodromic or 
oblique directions, — that is, north-east and south 
west, or south-east and north-west ; and not direct- 
ly north and soiith, nor directly east and west ; in 
this respect they harmonize with the currents that 
indirectly produced them. 

8. The reason why the continents are connected, 
north and south, by narrow necks of land, and are 
not thus connected east and west, and also the rea- 
son why each northern ocean has a southern ocean 
directly opposite, — is because the changes of the 
seasons caused an annual interchange of currents 
between the northern and southern hemispheres ; 
and no such currents moved east and west. 

9. There are two classes of ocean currents, 
namely : the elliptical and the local. The local 
differ from the elliptical in the fact that they do 
not move alternately north and south ; they either 



KECAPITULATIOX. 127 

move north or south in a local and limited region, 
and do not return ; or, if they partially return, the 
course they pursue is a semi-elliptical curve. 

10. Local currents produced the hollowing out 
of the T^'estern sides of the troj)ical continents. 

11. The cold south-east currents from the Arctic 
sea, by which the drift formation was jDroduced, 
were the complements of warm, north-east local 
currents, that previously entered that sea while the 
Arctic lands were rising. 

12. If the six ocean basins had sunk equally, 
the continents would hai^e been equally elevated, 
and the map of the world would have been per- 
fectly symmetrical. 

13. The latest formed mountains are the hiofhest : 
because the loads of sediment on the ocean's floor 
have been constantly increasino; from the beg-in- 
ning ; and consequently the later depressions have 
been deeper and more sudden. 

14. The atmospheric circulation differs from 
that of the ocean in this, that the air becomes 
chilled by risingr three or four miles into the hio-her 
regions of the atmosphere ; whereas, the water is 
compelled to flaw three or four thousand miles for 
the same purpose. 

15. When the column of warm air that rises at 
the equator becomes chilled, it gradually moves 
down an inclined plane to the earth, which it 
reaches at the thirtieth dcQ-ree of latitude, and 
flows along the surface to the equator. From the 
thirtieth deo-ree a current flows to the sixtieth de- 



128 RECAPITULATION. 

gree, along the surface, and then rises and returns 
as an upper current, to the thirtieth degree, when it 
sinks and repeats the circuit. From the polar re- 
gion a current moves to the sixtieth degree, where 
it rises and flows to the polar region, and there 
sinks and repeats the circuit. 

16. The polar lights are probably caused by 
the column of air that rises at the sixtieth 
degree ; the heat in the air, and in the moisture, 
being converted into electricity. 

1 7. The cyclones, or traveling whirlwinds, that 
occur in certain limited localities near the equa- 
tor, and which, in the northern hemisphere, al- 
ways move first north-west and then north-east, 
are probably caused in each instance, by the nor- 
mal current of one hemisphere overflowing into the 
opposite, to fill a vacuum produced by great local 
heat. When the westerly impulse given to tlie 
cyclone by the intruding current is exhausted, it 
moves easterly for the same reason that all the 
other polevv ard currents do. 



astrogene:a: 

A 

THEORY OF THE FORMATION 

OF 

PLANETARY SYSTEMS. 

BY 

J. STANLEY G-RIMES. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 

J, STANLEY GRIMES, 

In the Clerk's Office of the Eastern District of Michigan. 



DAILY POST PRE88, DETROIT. 



CONTENTS, 



SECTION I.— iN-moDucTioN. 

SECTION II.— -FOKMATION OF THE SOLAK SYSTEM ; CAUSE 

OF THE Relative MAajsriTUDES and Den- 
sities OF the Planets. 

SECTION III. — Intervals; Common Difference of 
the Orbital Telocities of Planets. 

SECTION IV.— Serial Relations of the Planets* 

SECTION v.— CoilPARATIVE ASTROGENEA. 

SECTION YI.— Physical Cause of Gravitation; Cause 
OF THE Sun's Heat; Cause of the In- 
ternal Heat of the Earth. 



ASTROGENEA. 



SECTION I. 

. INTRODUCTION. 

THE ancients possessed some correct ideas con- 
cerning astronomy; but the first important 
step toward a true theory of the solar system was 
taken by Copernicus. In the year 1543 he gave to 
the world the evidences, which he had long been 
accumulating, that the earth rotates upon its axis ; 
and that all the planets revolve, in concentric or- 
bits, fi'om west to east, around the sun. The proofs 
of this new doctrine were, however, so incomplete, 
that Tycho Brahe, fifty years afterward, rejected 
it ; and Lord Bacon regarded Copernicus as " a 
man who thinks nothing of introducing fictions of 
any kind into nature, provided his calculations turn 
out weU." But the revelations of the telescope, 
which Galileo first applied to astronomy in 1609, 
literally shed a flood of light upon the subject. It 
was foimd that the sun and all the known plan- 
ets revolve on their axes ; and that both Jupiter 
and Saturn are centers, around each of which a 



134 INTRODUCnO]^. 

family of secondary planets revolve. The next 
great discovery was that made by Kepler. He 
demonstrated that the distances of any two plan- 
ets from the sun are so mathematically related to 
their orbital revolutions, that when one is known 
the other can readily be calculated ; the squares of 
the periods of two planets being, to each other, in 
the same ratio as the cubes of their mean distances. 
The reason of this intimate relation between the 
periods and the distances, was the next great dis- 
covery. It was made, or rather completed, by 
Newton. With the aid of suggestions and discove- 
ries previously made by Kepler, Galileo, Descartes 
and Picard, he demonstrated that the planets 
move in orbits around the sun, because they are 
acted upon by two different forces ; one of which 
is gravitation, and is directly as the mass of the 
sun, and inversely as the square of his distance. 
He did not pretend to give any theory of the ori- 
gin, or physical cause of gravitation ; but he proved 
that it operates in all known bodies by one invari- 
able law. The other force, which antagonizes grav- 
itation, and modifies its effects upon the motions of 
planets, is called centrifugal or tangential. The 
origin of this force is also unknown ; but it is sup- 
posed to result from a primitive impulse, received 
by each planet in the following manner : the nebu- 
lous matter of which planatary systems were prim- 
itively composed, was collected from a diffused 
state, into comet-like masses, situated not very dis- 
tant from each other in the regions of space. These 



INTRODUCTION^. 135 

masses, by mutually attracting one another, came 
into collision. The necessary result was a whirl- 
ing or rotatory motion of the united mass, and the 
consequent generation of centrifugal force. 

If this was the origin of all axial rotations, as it 
probably was, it is not to be expected that any 
common law, or serial relation, will be found to 
exist among them, analogous to the other serial re- 
lations, which are discussed in a subsequent part 
of this essay. It is true that the known axial ro- 
tations of the planets are nearly in the same ratio 
as their magitudes ; but this coincidence is prob- 
ably fortuitous. 

By means of these discoveries of Kepler, New- 
ton and others, astronomers are now enabled to 
account for all the motions, periods and purturba- 
tions of the planets. There are, however, several 
prominent facts in regard to the solar system that 
have remained still unexplained. No reason has 
been given why the planets differ as they do in 
their magnitudes, their densities, or their intervals ; 
nor why they all agree in moving in the same di- 
rection, and in the same plane. It has, however, 
been suspected that these peculiarities are in some 
way related to the circumstances in which the 
planets were originally formed. 
' The idea was vaguely expressed by Tycho, 
Kepler, Galileo, and even by Newton, that the 
sun and planets may be merely precipitations and 
aggregations of matter which had previously ex- 
isted, in a diffused state, in the regions of space. 



136 INTRODUCTION. 

But Sir William Herschell was the first astronomer 
who remarked that the appearances assumed by 
some of the siderial masses, indicated that they 
may be planetary systems in a nebulous, mist-like, 
imperfect state of condensation, rotating upon 
their axes. He suggested that possibly a vast 
rotating globe, or wheel, of nebulous matter, may 
ultimately resolve itself into a sun and planets. 
Taking up the subject where Herschell had left it, 
Laplace undertook to conjecture concerning the 
manner in which the planets of our system became 
detached from the primitive nebulous wheel, of 
which they had once formed a part. He supposed 
that the nebulous matter was kept in a vaporous 
and expanded condition, by means of the great 
heat which it possessed ; and that the radiation of 
the heat caused the nebula to shrink into a smaller 
space. On mechanical principles, he knew that all 
the rotatory force possessed by the nebulous wheel 
in its expanded condition, would be retained in its 
more condensed state ; and therefore, the centri- 
fugal force would gradually increase, and at 
length become so great as to overcome the sun's 
attraction; consequently, the outer rim of the 
nebulous wheel would be detached from the main 
body, and constitute a separate rotating ring. In 
the same manner a second ring, and then a third 
was detached; and this was repeated until the sun 
alone remained. Each ring afterward became 
concentrated into a planet, in a manner which 
Laplace does not very clearly describe. 



IXTEODUCTIOX. 137 

Notwithstanding some glaring defects in this 
"nebular hypothesis," it has been regarded as 
reasonable, and probably in the main true, by some 
able astronomers ; while, on the other hand, it has 
been unmercifully condemned by many- others. 
That the solar system has been evolTcd out of a 
single nebulous wheel, there are, to my mind, the 
most satisfactory proofs. The concentric, and al- 
most circular orbits in which the planets move, all 
in one dii'ection, from west to east, in nearly the 
same plane as the sun's equator, — can be accounted 
for upon no other rational theory. But, while we 
must admit that the sun and planets were origi- 
nally a single ^ mass, it does not follow that we 
must adopt the hypothesis of Laplace, concerning 
the manner in which the nebula was transformed 
into rings and planets. 

Independent of the new theory advanced in 
this essay, the most serious objection to the hy- 
pothesis of Laplace, is one which I have never 
seen mentioned. It is founded upon the dis- 
tribution of matter in the solar system. If we 
suppose all the matter to be divided into 768 
parts, 767 of these are in the sun, and one part 
alone includes all the matter of the planets and 
satellites. Again, if we estimate all the matter of 
the planets, exclusive of the sun, as consisting of 
475 parts, 338 of these parts are in Jupiter alone, 
and 101 parts are in Saturn. These two planets 
are included within the inner third of the distance 
from the sun to the orbit of Neptune: only 36 parts 
12* 



138 INTRODUCTION. 

are found in the outer two-thirds of the radius 
of the system. Surely centrifugal force could not 
have prevailed and thrown off the planets from 
the central part, while so large a proportion of the 
matter was movino; toward the centre. It is clear 
that centripetal force must have predominated dur- 
ing the formation of the planets, and that it came 
very near carrying the whole of the matter to the 
centre ; it came so near that it actually did carry 
767 out of 768 parts of it there. We now begin 
to wonder what process it could be, that concen- 
trated so large a portion of the nebulous matter in 
a central space less than one million of miles in 
diameter, and yet allowed so small a portion as the 
768th part to be scattered over a space about 6000 
millions of miles in diameter. 



SECTION IL 
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

CAUSE OF THE EELATIYE MAGNITUDES AXD DEN- 
SITIES OF THE PLANETS. 

The new theory which I propose concerning the 
formation of the solar system is all embraced in the 
following proposition: The relative raagnitudes^ 
densities cmd distances of the sun and planets^ are 
such as tcould necessarily residt from the axial ro- 
tation of a nebidous 7nass in a resisting medium. 

Jf we admit the existence of an etherial fluid, — 
such as that, the vibrations of which produce light 
and heat, — we must also admit that it will present 
a slight resistance to the passage of a body through 
it. By regarding the etherial fluid as analogous to 
atmospheric air, we can readily understand that 
the lighter a body is the greater will be the re- 
tarding efiect of the resistance. We can also un- 
derstand that the resistance of the medium will be 
in a direct ratio to the velocity of the body that 
moves through it. One of the objections, which it 
is said that Newton made to the now received 
theory of light, nam^y, that it is the vibratory or 
undulating motion of an etherial fluid, was, that 
such a fluid medium would deflect the planets from 



140 FORMATION OF THE 

their normal and proper orbits, and cause them to 
move by spiral paths to the sun. The undulatory 
theory of light is now firmly established ; and the 
existence of a resisting medium cannot, therefore, 
be denied. Indeed, it seems impossible to avoid 
the conclusion that the fact of gravitation, itself, 
demonstrates the necessary existence of a medium 
through which that force is communicated from 
one planet to another : for it is certain that force 
cannot be communicated except through a material 
medium. 

When it was found that Encke's comet approach- 
ed nearer the sun with each revolution, — so that in 
thirty thousand years it must fall into it, — the 
ablest astronomers in Europe, after exhausting all 
other modes of explanation, finally concluded that 
the comet, being exceedingly light, is deflected in- 
ward by the resistance of the etherial air which it 
encounters in space ; and that it is, therefore, actu- 
ally pursuing a spiral path toward the sun. 

" Now it appears probable that this comet is approaching 
the Sun : on every successive appearance, its orbit appears 
somewhat contracted; and there is reason to believe that 
the contraction wiU go on nntil it ia either absorbed in that 
luminary, or altogether dissipated by ^^, beams. And after 
searching earnestly for some other cause, nrost inquirers are 
inclined to refer this extraordinary and hitherto unparalleled 
change, to a resisting medium or ether occupying the 
planetary spaces. " I cannot but express my belief," said 
Professor Airy, " that the princif&l part of the theory — viz., 
an effect exactly similar to that which a resisting medium 
would produce — ^is perfectly established by the reasoning in 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 141 

Encke's memoir ;'* and similar opinions have been offered by 
other great authorities. * -^ ^ How singular is 
it that we should have been guided to a truth so remote and 
difBicult — one concerning which the grander phenomena of 
our system are silent — ^by the motions of a wandering object, 
in comparison with whose etherial nature, even one of these 
light flocculi or flakes of cloud, which scarce stain the sky 
of a summer evening, is heavy and substantial !" — Nichols. 

When the nebulous wheel, from whence the solar 
system was formed, commenced its rotation, it must 
have been composed of matter which was exceed- 
ingly attenuated; quite as much so as that of any 
comet, and, if possible, more so : it is, therefore, 
perfectly reasonable to presume that it was sub- 
jected to the influence of the same resisting medium 
which now has such a decided effect upon Encke's 
comet. 

K, at the commencement of its rotation, the 
nebula was no more dense or massive in the centre 
than elsewhere, the first effect of the resisting me- 
dium would be to cause a large portion of the 
lighter matter to accumulate there, and assume the 
office of a primary body — a sun. The attraction 
of this central mass would at once establish orbital 
motions in all the surrounding nebulous matter, 
whatever might be its form or condition. The 
laws of Kepler, so called, that now govern the 
motions of all secondaiy planets, must have con- 
troled the motions of the secondary nebulous mat- 
ter, that was thus necessarily forced to move in 
orbits or rings around the central body. Accord- 



142 FORMATION OF THE 

ing to these laws, the portions that were nearest 
to the centre, but not actually attached to it, must 
have moved around it with the greatest velocity ; 
and those portions which were most remote, with 
the least velocity. 

Sir Charles Lyell, in his "Principles of Geology," 
objected to the prevailing opinions concerning geo- 
logical catastrophes ; and insisted that it was more 
philosophical to account for the changes which the 
earth has undergone, by referring them to the 
operation of still existing causes. I am not only a 
convert to his doctrine, but I would apply it to the 
formation of the planets. The same causes which 
now produce the differences of orbital velocities, 
were in operation before the planets were formed, 
and caused differences in the velocities of the 
chaotic materials of which the planets were sub- 
sequently composed. If all the planets could now 
be crumbled to dust, and that dust be scattered 
equally between the orbit of Neptune and that of 
Mercury, — each separate particle of the dust would 
have a tendency to move in an orbit of its own. 
This tendency would, in some degree, be overcome 
by the mutual attraction of the pg-rticles for each 
other ; and the result would be the formation of a 
series of concentric rings, differing in width and 
velocities : the width of the rings would increase, 
and the velocities decrease, in accordance with 
their increasing distances from the sun. In fact, 
the same law prevailed during the formation of the 
planets as that which now determines their relative 
velocities. 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 143 

The velocity of Mercury is nine times greater 
than that of Neptune, — five times greater than that 
of Saturn ; three and a half times greater than that 
of Jupiter;, and twice as great as that of Mars. At 
the distance of nine millions of miles from the sun, 
the velocity of a body would be twice as great as 
that of Mercury ; and at the distance of four mil- 
lions it would be four times as great, or more than 
four hundred thousand miles an hour. It is plain, 
therefore, that the resisting medium would pro- 
duce its greatest effects between the sun and the 
orbit of Jupiter; and that its effects would be 
gradually ^ess as the orbital velocities decreased 
with the distances from the sun. 

To form a correct idea of the actual effects of the 
resisting medium, upon the form and proportions of 
the embryo solar system, or nebulous wheel, — we 
must consider what would necessarily have been 
the form of the nebula, if the resisting medium had 
not produced any effect upon its proportions. 

It is well kno-wn to mechanical philosophers that 
a fluid mass, rotating rapidly on its axis, must ne- 
cessarily tend to assume the form of an oblate 
spheroid, — a double convex lens — a wheel, thickest 
in the centre, and gradually thinner to the outer 
edge. This would have been the form of the em- 
bryo solar system, had it not been for the resisting 
etherial medium, and the greater orbital velocities 
of the secondary matter near the sun. In the very 
place (between the sun and Jupiter) where the 
planetary matter would otherwise have been most 



144 FOEMATION OF THE 

abundanjb, the resisting medium caused it to be the 
least in quantity. The nebulous wheel, instead of 
being thickest at the centre and gradually thinner 
from the centre outwards, was, by the resisting 
medium, made thickest at the centre and at the 
orbit of Jupiter, and very thin between the sun 
and Jupiter, where the four small, dense planets 
are now situated. 



FiGUEE 1. 

The outer lines in figure 1 represent the primitive form 
which the nebulous mass would have possessed if there 
had been no resisting medium. The 
spaces A and B represent the matter 
which was swept into the centre, in 
consequence of its great velocity in- 
creasing the resistance. After the 
nebula had been denuded of most of 
its matter near the centre, it was 
thickest at the place (J) where Jupiter 
was formed, and much thinner be- 
tween the orbit of Jupiter and the 
sun, where the four small, interior 
planets are located. Beyond the 
orbit of Jupiter it gradually became 
thinner, so that Uranus and Neptune are very much smaller 
than Saturn. 




SOLAK SYSTEM. 145 

CAUSE OF THE RELATITE DENSITIES OF 
THE PLAXETS. 

Let lis consider the effect of the resistino- me- 
dium, combined with the differences of orbital 
velocities, upon the relative densities of the planets. 
The matter comj^rising the embryo solar system 
was undoubtedly possessed of different degrees of 
density. The natural tendency of the condensing 
nebulous matter would be to form itself into a 
coimtless number of meteoric or comet-like masses ; 
each separate mass consisting of a dense central 
nucleus, and a less dense atmospheric envelope. 
Such, in fact, is now the actual constitution of the 
comets. The nebula became a vast wilderness of 
comets. As the resisting medium affected the 
lighter and more expanded matter more than it 
did the denser, it follows that there was a tendency 
of the atmospheric envelope, or outer portion of 
each mass, to become separated from the denser 
nucleus, and to move to the sun; leaving the denser 
portions behind to constitute planets and planetet- 
tes. The greater orbital velocities of the nebulous 
matter near the primary, caused all but the very 
densest portion of it to be swept into the sun. As 
the distance from the sun increased, the influence 
of orbital velocity was lessened, and the densities 
tended to decrease in the same ratio. 

Let us examine a table (l) of the densities, (ac- 
cording to Humboldt,) and compare them with the 
velocities of the same planets, to see how far they 
confirm this theory. 
13 



146 formation of the 

Table 1. 

Mercury, 123 110 

Venus, 94 81 

Earth, 100 68 

Mars, 96 55 

Jupiter, 24 30 

Saturn, .14 22 

Uranus, 18 15 

Neptune, 23 12 

It will be seen that from Mercury to Saturn the 
actual densities are generally accordant with our 
views ; beyond this point they increase in density, 
and thus appear at first thought to contradict 
theory. But, upon a more careful examination, we 
find that this apparent discrepancy is in reality a 
confirmation. The matter swept into the sun from 
the interior parts of the system was, in some de- 
gree, replaced by that swept inward from the mid- 
dle regions ; and that swept inward from the mid- 
dle regions was replaced by that from the outer 
regions : but the light matter swept inward from 
the outer regions could not be replaced ; and, there- 
fore, the outer planets would be more dense than 
those in the middle, while those in the interior 
would be the densest of all. 

The internal heat of celestial bodies must make 
some difference in their densities. The density of 
the sun is about the same as that of Jupiter ; and 
this is readily accounted for by the amazing heat 
which counteracts the vast force of gravity that 
presses toward his centre. In another essay, I have 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 147 

attempted to show that all celestial bodies generate 
heat internally, in the direct ratio of their masses, by 
the assimilation and condensation of etherial mat- 
ter, and the conversion of its expansive force into 
radiant force. If this is true, the larger planets 
will, all else equal, be less dense than the smaller 
ones. The mutual attractions and purturbations of 
of the embryo planets, during the countless ages 
of their progressive formation, must have had some 
influence upon their relative magnitudes and densi- 
ties, and, perhaps, also upon their intervals. The 
attraction of an immense exterior mass, like Jupi- 
ter, would certainly prevent much of the light mat- 
ter from reaching the orbit of Mars ; this would 
not only account for the anomalous smallness, but 
also for the great density of Mars. The second 
satellite of Jupiter occupies an analogous relative 
position, and, like Mars, it is remarkably small and 
dense. At the first thought, it would seem that, 
according to this theory, the magnitudes of the 
planets should be successively greater from Mercury 
to Neptune ; whereas, they only increase outwardly 
to Jupiter, and then decrease. A little examina- 
tion will show us that the facts are in strict ac- 
cordance with the requirements of theory. It 
should be recollected that the tendency of rotation 
was to make the nebulous wheel thickest in the 
centre and gradually thinner to the outer edge ; 
and that the influence of the resisting medium did 
not change this form, except between the orbit of 
Jupiter and the sun. Beyond Jupiter the form re- 



148 FOEMATION OF THE 

mained the same as if there had been no resisting 
medium: that is to say, the wheel became gradual- 
ly thinner from Jupiter to the outer edge. This is 
in accordance with the fact that Saturn is smaller 
than Jupiter, and Uranus and Neptune smaller than 
either. 

This theory is doubly confirmed by the satellitic 
systems of Jupiter and Saturn. In each of these 
the distribution of matter is essentially the same 
as in the solar system. There is, first, a central 
primary, containing many times more matter than 
all the secondaries together; second, there are 
several small secondaries near the primary; third, 
there is one giant secondary, containing more mat- 
ter than all the other secondaries of that system to- 
gether; fourth, beyond the giant are one or more 
smaller bodies with wide intervals. 

Figures 2, 3 and 4 represent very clearly the analogies of 
tlie three systems, and are well calculated to impress our 
minds with the idea that a common law operated in their 
formation, though modified by the peculiarities of each sys- 
tem. The dotted line around the solar system represents 
the primitive nebula from which it is supposed that the 
planets were formed. 

A single glance at the figures is sufiicient to show that as 
Jupiter is a giant among the planets, so is Ganymede a giant 
among Jupiter's satellites, and so also is Titan a giant among 
the satellites of Saturn. The analogies would doubtless ap- 
pear much more striking if all the undiscovered bodies in 
all the systems could be represented. In the present sys- 
tems of Astronomy, these common points of resemblance 
are entirely meaningless. 



Neptune, 



Uranus, 



Saturn, 



SOLAK SYSTEM. 

FiGUEE 2. — Solar System. 




149 



Jupiter, 




\ 



f 
i 



Mars,. 



^ 



Earth, . , 
Yenus, . 
Mercury, 



sxnsr. 



150 



FORMATION OF THE 



Fig. 3. — Jur. System. Fig. 4. — Sat. System. 
' Japetus, ^ 



Callisto, 



Ganymede, , 



Europa, . 



lo. 




S 



Hyperion, 

Titan, 

Rhea, ^ 

Dione, ^ 

Tethys, @ 

Enceladus, ^ 

Mimas, © 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 151 



INTEE-PLAXETARY SPACES, AND THE RELATIVE 

ORBITAL VELOCITIES OF THE PRIMITIVE 

RINGS AND PLA^^ETS. 

I agree with Laplace, that the nebula was first 
divided into rings, and that each planet was formed 
by the concentration of the matter of a single ring 
into a globular mass ; so that the intervals, could 
they all be accurately known, would indicate the 
width of the rings that once filled the same spaces. 
But I propose to give a very different explanation 
from that of Laplace, of the manner in which the 
rings were separated from the parent nebula and 
from each other. My idea is that a nebula could 
not rotate in a resisting medium, without having a 
large proportion of its lighter matter drawn into 
its centre. The great central mass, thus accumulat- 
ed, would necessarily assume the office and power 
of a primary planet, and compel all the nebulous 
matter in the neighborhood to perform the offices 
of secondary bodies: that is to say, the matter 
near the sun would either rush into its bosom, or 
revolve in concentric orbits around the centre. 

The mutual attraction of all the parts of the 
nebula would tend to bind it together, in rigid con- 
nection with the central mass, like the parts of a 
vast planet. This aggregating tendency would be 
opposed by the tendency of the matter, at different 
distances from the sun, to move with different 
orbital velocities. The greater the difference of 
any two portions of the nebulous matter in their 



152 FORMATION OF THE 

distances from the sun, the greater must have been 
their tendencies to a difierence of orbital velocities. 
If the cohesive or aggregating tendency could have 
been sufficiently powerful, the whole nebula Avould 
have remained in a single mass. If, on the con- 
trary, the tendency to differ in orbital motion could 
have been unopposed, there would have been a di- 
vision of the nebula into an almost infinite number 
of concentric rings, each of which would have 
moved with a greater velocity the nearer it was to 
the sun. These two forces antagonized each other; 
one tending to prevent the formation of any rings, 
and the other tending to the formation of a count- 
less number of rings of extreme narrowness : the 
necessary result of the antagonism was a com- 
promise. A limited number of rings were formed, 
which were wider the farther removed they were 
from the central primary. Let us illustrate this 
proposition. If a row of bodies could be arranged 
so as to extend in a radial line from the sun to the 
orbit of Xeptune, the mutual attraction of those 
bodies would tend to preserve the line unbroken ; 
but the differences in their orbital velocities would 
not permit this. The line would be broken up into 
a definite number of shorter lines ; the longest line 
in the series being the one most distant from the 
sun, and the shortest the one nearest to the sim. 
The length of the lines would be regulated by the 
ratio in which the velocities decreased with dis- 
tances. This is a perfect illustration of the manner 
in which rings were formed. 



sectio:n" m. 

INTERVALS AND COMMON DIFFERENCE OF THE 
ORBITAL VELOCITIES. 

LET us denominate the nebulous matter that 
moved around the embryo sun, secondary mat- 
ter. Let us represent the force of aggregation, or 
mutual attraction between the particles of the sec- 
ondaiy matter, by the number 1,582. This aggre- 
gating tendency was the same in all parts of the 
disk of secondary matter; it was equal to 1,582 in 
the inner, the middle and the outer parts. The 
tendency of this cohesive force of 1,582 was to pre- 
vent the formation of rings. Of course, no rings 
could be formed without overcoming it. The dif- 
ferences in orbital velocities were opposed to it. 
But it required a certain difference of distance from 
the sun to obtain a difference of velocities sufficient 
to antagonize 1,582. Not only so, it requii-ed a 
greater difference of distance to overcome 1,582, 
the further the secondary matter was situated from 
the sun. Whenever the difference of distance was 
so great, in any place, as to cause a difference of 
orbital velocities equal to 1,582 miles per hour, ag- 
gregation or cohesion was overcome, and a separate 
ring was formed. It follows, that since there was 
a common force of 1,582 to overcome, there must 
14 



154 INTERYALS AND * 

have been a common force at least equal to 1,582 
to overcome it ; and any two consecutive rings 
must, all else equal, have differed ui orbital veloci- 
ties 1,582. If all the riftgs had been formed into 
planets, they also would have differed 1,582. If 
several rings, from any cause, were prevented from 
becoming planets, then those planets that loere 
formed would differ in their orbital velocities twice 
1,582, or thrice, or four times, or some greater mul- 
tiple of 1,582. By referring to the following tables, 
it will be seen that the actual velocities of the 
known planets and satellites are in remarkable ac- 
cordance with this theory. It will be noticed that 
each system has a different number for its common 
difference, though all are subject to the same Imo. 

EXPLAl!^ATI0N OF TABLE 2. 

In the following table, tlie difference between the velocity 
of Mercmy and tliat of Yenus is put down as 1,582, multi- 
plied by 19, which is equal to 30,058. This being deducted 
from tlie velocity of Mercury, leaves 80,682 for the velocity 
of Yenus. Again, 1,582 is multiplied by 8, and the product, 
12,656, is deducted from 80,682, leaving 68,026 for the velo- 
city of Earth. Proceeding in this manner, I show that 1,582 
comes very near being a common divisor of all the dif- 
ferences of the orbital velocities ; so near, indeed, as to force 
upon us the belief that the rings, from which the planets 
were formed, must have originally had a common difference 
of their orbital velocities of very nearly 1,582. 

In a parallel column I have placed the actual velocities, 
taken from Dr. Lardner's hand book of Astronomy, to show 
how closely they agree with those derived from theory. - 



DirrEEE:s'CE of yelocities. 155 

Table 2. 
eelatiye oebital yelocities. 

Theoretical Actual 

Velocities. Velocities. 

Miles per hour. Miles per hour. 

l._Velocit7 of Mercury, 110,740 110,725 

Subtract 1,582 x 19= 30,058 

2.— Velocity of Venus, 80,682 81,000 

Subtract 1,582 x 8= 12,656 

3.— Velocitv of Earth, 68,026 68,090 

Subtract 1,582 x 8= 12,656 

4.— Velocity of Mars, 55,370 55,812 

Subtract 1,582 x 16= 25,312 

5.— Velocity of Jupiter, 30,058 30,203 

Subtract 1,582 x 5= . , 7,910 

6.— Velocitv of Saturn, 22,148 22,306 

Subtract 1,582 x 4= 6,328 

7.— Velocitv of Uranus, 15,820 15,730 

Subtract 1,582 x 2= 3,164 

8.— Velocity of Neptune, 12,656 12,570 



Table 3 

relatiye oebital yelocities of the satellites 

of jupitee. 

Theoretical Actual 

Velocities. Velocities, 

Miles per hour. Miles per hour 

1.— Velocitv of lo, 38,772 38,772 

Subtract 7,000 

2.— Velocity of Europa, 31,772 30,716 

Subtract 7,000 

3.— Velocity of Ganymede, 24,772 24,513 

Subtract 7,000 

4— Velocity of Callisto, 17,772 17,743 



156 INYERYALS AND 

Table 4. 
relative oebital velocities of the satellites 

of satur]s^. 

Theoretical Actual 

Velocities. Velocities. 

Miles per hour. Miles per hour. 

1.— Yelocity of Mimas 34,986 34,986 

Subtract 714 x 5= 3,570 

2._Velocitv of Enceladus, 31,416 30,975 

Subtract 714 x 5= 3,570 

3._Velocity of Tethys, 27,846 27,776 

Subtract 714 x 5=: ^ 3,570 

4._-.Velocit7 of Dione 24,276 24,516 

Subtract 714x5= 3,570 

5._yelocity of Rhea, 20,706 20,763 

Sabtract 714 x 10= 7,140 

6.— Yelocity of Titan, , . . . 13,566 13,635 

Subtract 714 x 2= 1,428 

7._Yelocity of Hyperion, 12,138 12,215 

Subtract 714x6= 4,284 

8._Velocity of Japetus, 7,854 7,968 

Table 5. 
relative velocities of the satellites of 

URANUS. 

Theoretical Actual 

Velocities. Velocities. 

Miles per hour. Mies per hour. 

l.—Yelocity of the 1st, 12,500 12,500 

Subtract 600 x 2= 1,200 

2._Velocity of the 2nd, 11.300 11,200 

Subtract 600x2= 1,200 

3.— Velocity of the 3rd, 10,100 10,056 

Subtract 600 x 2 = 1,200 

4.— Yelocity of the 4th, 8,900 8,828 

Subtract 600 600 

5.— Velocity of the 5th, 8,300 8,178 

Subtract 600 600 

6.-^Velocity of the 6th, 6,700 7,636 



DIFFERENCE OF VELOCITIES. 157 

I was led to discover the law of common dif- 
ference of planetary velocities in the following 
manner. In 1857 I printed a small volume, en- 
titled "Geonomy, or the Creation of the Conti- 
nents." In writing an introduction to a proposed 
new edition of that work, I attempted to make a 
brief statement, and a plausible defense, of the 
nebular hypothesis of Laplace. Being thus led to 
examine the subject critically, I convinced myself 
that the hypothesis is erroneous. I therefore en- 
deavored to frame a more reasonable theory in its 
stead. After many unsuccesful experiments, I at 
length succeeded in producing the theory, that the 
relative magnitudes and densities of the planets are 
owing to the rotation of the nebula in a resisting 
medium ; and that the rings were separated by the 
antagonism between the aggregating tendency and 
the differences of the orbital velocities. I gave 
the substance of this theory in a public lecture, in 
the winter of 1860, before the members of the Mer- 
cantile Library Association, in Boston. Shortly 
afterward it occurred to my mind that if this 
theory is true, there should be some evidence of it 
found in the actual relative velocities of the known 
planets and satellites. I proceeded at once to con- 
struct tables of the orbital velocities, and was, of 
course, much gratified to find my theory confirmed 
in such a remarkable manner. A brief and imper- 
fect statement of this discovery was published at 
the time in the Scientijie American; but I have 
not, until now, been able to present the subject to 



158 i:ntervals and 

the friends of science in a systematic form, and in 
connection with the serial relations of the square 
roots of the distances. 



DEFINITE WIDTH OF THE RINGS OR INTERVALS, AND 

THE LAWS OF THEIR INCREASE WITH 

DISTANCE FROM THE SUN. 

I have said that the rings must have been nar- 
rower the nearer they were to the sun. The reason 
is that it requires less difference of the distances near 
the sun to obtain a given difference (1,582) ol or- 
bital velocities. This will be seen by inspecting the 
tables which represent the velocities and distances 
of the planets. The two known planets that differ 
most in orbital velocities, are those nearest to the 
sun and to each other, namely, Venus and Mercury; 
they differ in their velocities nearly 30,000 miles 
per hour, yet they differ in distances from the sun 
only 27 millions of miles. The two known planets 
that differ least in their velocities, are those most 
distant from the sun and from each other, namely, 
Neptune and Uranus ; they differ in distances about 
1,000 millions of miles, but in orbital velocities they 
differ only 3,160 miles per hour, which is nine 
times less than the difference between Venus and 
Mercury. Since the nearer bodies are to the sun 
the less difference of distances was required to ob- 
tain 1,582 difference in orbital velocities, it neces- 
sarily follows that the rings must have been wider 
the further they were from the sun. 



DIFFERENCE OF VELOCITIES. 



159 



Figure 5, 



COMMON DIFFERENCE IK 
ORBITAL VELOCITIES. 



H 



INTERVALS OF THE 
PLANETS. 



Miles per hour, 1582 ' 



'864 millions of miles from 
Hercules to Neptune. 



Miles per hour, 1582 1 



,.592 from Neptune to Pluto. 



Miles per hour, 1582 



424 from Pluto to Uranu?. 



Miles per hour, 1582' 

Miles per hour, 1582 1 f^ 

Miles per hour, 1582 

Miles per hour, 1582 11^. 



313 from Uranus to Apollo. 



.239 from Apollo to Miner v a 

185 from Minerv^a to Yulcan. 
. .13T from Vulcan to Saturn. 



This figure illustrates at a glance tlie idea that wliile tlie 
planets may have a common difference of 1582 miles per 
hour in their orbital velocities, they have an increasing dif- 
ference in their intervals of space which is represented by 
the numbers increasing from 137 to 864 millions of miles. 



FORMATION OF PLxVNETS FROM RINGS 

The nebula must have become divided into rings 
as soon as the sun was sufficiently large and at- 
tractive to establish orbital motions in the sur- 



160 FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 

rounding secondary matter. We have already- 
seen reason to conclude that the resisting medium 
caused the nebulous matter to move interiorly 
by spiral paths toward the sun. This proceeding 
did not stop when the rings were formed ; on the 
contrary, it was probably the means of forming 
rings into planets. A large mass of the lighter 
portions of nebulous matter, situated in the outer 
part of a ring, would be certain to move spirally 
to the inner edge ; in doing this it would, of course, 
attract to itself nearly all the matter of the ring, 
and thus form a globular planet. Two masses, 
moving in the same orbit, at a great distance from 
each other, would never come together. But let 
one of the masses be com|)osed of much lighter 
materials than the other, and the resisting medium 
would have a greater effect upon it, and cause it to 
move in more open spirals, and thus enable it to 
get the inside tract and overtake the other ; or, at 
least, come so near to it as to attract it to itself 
and add it to its own mass. It was in this manner 
that I suppose that the rings were transformed 
into planets. 

FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 

We can readily understand how, on this hy- 
pothesis, many of the rings were prevented from 
becoming planets. If one of the rings were very 
massive, as in the case of that from which Jupiter 
was formed, its attraction would prevent the next 



FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 161 

interior ring or rings from undergoing the pro- 
cess already described as necessary to the for- 
mation of a planet : that is to say, the spiral in- 
ward movement of the light matter in the outer 
part of the ring, would be retarded, or entirely 
prevented, by the attraction of the massive exterior 
ring. This retardation would be the most likely 
to take place in the interior parts of the system, 
where the rings were very narrow. We know that 
there is a zone of asteroids, about one hundred 
millions of miles wide, in the interval between the 
orbits of Juj)iter and Mars. According to the 
theory here advocated, there were originally fifteen 
rings in this interval. The attraction of Jupiter 
has rendered them all asteroids ; that is to say, it 
has prevented the inward spiral movement which 
was necessary to form each of them into a normal 
planet ; and thus it forced them to become aggre- 
gated into a great number of planetettes, which 
are abnormally small and near each other. Is it 
not a strong presumptive proof of the truth of 
this theory that the regular planets are all soli- 
tary ? In no instance do we find two moving in 
the same orbit, or the same zone ; nor does any 
planet come near the orbit of another. If the 
rings had been broJceii up by any such accidents as 
the advocates of the nebular hypothesis commonly 
imagine, the inevitable consequence would have 
been that, in some instances, several planets, or 
fragments, would have the same or nearly the same 
orbit. 

14* 



162 FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 

The following somewhat poetical account of the 
nebular hypothesis is from Nichol's Cyclopedia 
of the Physical Sciences : 

Has our reader walked in a mood of tranquil thought 
along the side of a quiet river, Tvliose waving banks re- 
flect a thousand currents, by the intermingling of which 
numerous' dimples or whirlpools are produced — their easy 
course only marking the river's stillness ? Has he followed 
these dimples as they pursue each other in gambol, and 
watched the phenomenon of the near approach of two or 
three? Then may he have witnessed the secret of the 
mystery of the double and triple stars ! When one of these 
dimples approaches the vortex of another, the two begin 
to revolve around ea<^7i other ; and in fact they must, on ap- 
proximation, act upon each other as two wheels ; so that 
a revolution of each around the other must immediately 
supervene, and increase in rapidity, until by external pressure 
they are forced into one. If such single neighboring nuclei 
were rotating, it would be precisely a case of two contiguous 
whirlpools ; and how could revolutionary motion 'be prevented ? 
Two such masses in approximate contact must originate such 
a motion : as the principle of gravity draws the nuclei nearer 
each other, the velocity of revolution must manifestly in- 
crease ; and the two bodies would constitute themselves into 
a stable system when the rapidity of revolution sufficed to 
counterbalance their mutual attraction. 

It is known to mechanics, that a grindstone may be made 
to revolve with a rapidity sufficient to cause splinters to fly 
from its rim, and even the whole rim to break in pieces — 
indicating that the centrifugal force of the rim with that 
velocity, more than counterbalances the mutual attraction or 
cohesion of the particles of the stone. Now if the rim, in- 
stead of being formed of brittle stone, had consisted of 
an elastic belt, say of caoutchouc, what would result in such 
a case ? Clearly a separation of the rim from the mass of the 



FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 163 

rotating body; it would expand somewhat, just as tlie orbit 
of a planet in a similar position ; and, if other circumstances 
permitted, it would revolve around the stone as a separate 
ring at a distance where the balance or equilibrium of the 
forces would be restored. 

First, As the separation of the rings resulted from the 
centrifugal tendency of the particles composing them, and 
as tliis centrifugal tendency must always be greatest at the 
equatorial region of the rotatory mass, the rings must all lie 
nearly in the plane of tJiat equator. Therefore, we are en- 
titled to conclude, that into whatever forms or bodies these 
rings may ultimately be resolved these hodks must all lie 
in nearly one plane — the plane, viz., of the equator of the 
central globe. 

Secondly, The rings being circular, or, what is the same 
thing, the motion of each particle composing them being 
circular, the orbits or paths of whatever bodies are ultimate- 
ly formed out of them, must also he nearly circular. 

Thirdly, As the rings must continue to move as the nebula 
was moving when they were abandoned, the planets into 
which they may be resolved must all move in the same di- 
rection — that viz., of tlie rotation of the centred orb or sun. Our 
subject is thus rapidly simplifying. We have already — 
even at this stage — deduced from this memorable hypothesis 
the necessity of the principcd three of those fimdamental 
arrangements which gravity could not explain. But let us 
proceed. 

Resuming our direct investigation, we inquire now what 
forms would such rings most probably ultimately assume ? 
There are three possible forms : — 1. The mass, if tolerably 
equable in its original constitution, and imdisturbed from 
without, might settle down into a rotating ring ; but the 
chances against such a result are so numerous, that we 
would expect the phenomenon to be very rare in the Uni- 
verse. 2. If the mass broke up or separated while condens- 
ing — as its own internal irregularities would, in all probabi- 



164 FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 

lity, constrain it to do — ^it might divide into a number of por- 
tions so equal in attractive energy, that none of them would 
have any tendency to coalesce with, or fall into the others ; 
so that the ring would ultimately be transformed into a num- 
ber of distinct small solid bodies, revolving around the central 
mass at nearly the same distance from it. 3. Even this 
second supposition, however, is not a very probable one, in- 
asmuch as its essential condition — the separation of the 
mass of the ring into equally balanced nuclei — could, in 
the nature of things, occur but rarely. By far the likeliest 
result is the division of the ring into nuclei of unequal 
power — the larger of which would, by its superior attrac- 
tion, assume the others into its mass — the whole solidifying 
into one considerable globe. 

According to our theory, asteroids would be cer- 
tain to be formed in the interior jjarts of the sys- 
tem where the rings were narrow, and where an 
exterior ring or planet was very massive. If we 
examine the table, we shall see that fifteen rings 
have been rendered asteroidal by the powerful at- 
traction of Juj)iter exterior to them. If our 
reasoning may be relied upon, there are asteroids 
within fifty millions of miles of Jupiter's orbit, 
though none have yefc been found within two hun- 
dred millions ; there are also asteroids within ten 
millions of miles of the orbit of Mars, though 
none have been seen within fifty millions of miles. 
The same influence of Jupiter which prevented the 
known asteroids from becoming planets, came very 
near preventing the creation of Mars. It has evi- 
dently prevented a large portion of the matter, 
that normally belonged to him, from reaching him. 



rOE]VIATION OF ASTEROIDS. 165 

It has thus rendered him abnormally small and 
dense, besides depriving him of a moon, and nearly 
preventing him from inheriting even an atmosphere. 
It is difficult, now, to determine how much the at- 
traction of Jupiter influenced the formation of the 
earth ; but, in conjunction with Mars, our theory 
indicates that it has rendered seven rings asteroidal 
between the orbits of Mars and of our planet. It 
also indicates that one of the primitive rings was 
within four millions of miles of the earth. Does 
not this ag^ree with the observations which have 
been made in relation to the zodiacal light ? Be- 
tween the earth and Venus seven rings existed, one 
of which was within three and a half millions of 
miles of the earth's orbit. The large mass and the 
great density of Yenus probably prevented that 
planet from being rendered asteroidal by the at- 
traction of the earth. The formation of a moon was 
actually prevented, in all probability, by the 
earth's influence, together with that of the nearest 
rings. Between Venus and Mercury are eighteen 
rings : nor is this surprising when we consider that 
the rings in this interval were only from one to 
three millions of miles wide ; and that Venus, a 
large exterior body, aided by the earth, was op- 
posed to their concentration. Of course. Mercury, 
under these circumstances, could not have a satel- 
lite. Between Mercury and the sun the rings be- 
came so rapidly narrowed, and so numerous, that 
normal planets were out of the question. We can 
now understand the reason of the greater space be- 



166 FORMATION OF ASTEROIDS. 

tween the sun and Mercury than between Mercury 
and Venus, or between Venus and the earth. The 
same fact exists in Jupiter's system of satellites, 
and also in that of Saturn : the space between the 
primary and the nearest secondary is greater than 
between the first and second satellites. Our theory 
indicates that there were four primitive rings be- 
tween the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, which 
must have all been rendered asteroidal. Between 
Uranus and Saturn there were three rings, all of 
which may now exist in the fonn of planets, though 
as yet they are undiscovered. The influence of 
Saturn may possibly have prevented the rmg near- 
est to his orbit from forming a planet ; but I can- 
not doubt that the other two (denominated Apollo 
and Minerva in the tables) actually exist, and that 
they will yet be discovered in the orbits indicated 
in the tables. Between Uranus and Xeptune there 
is probably another planet, Pluto, whose velocity, 
14,238 miles per hour, is a mean between that of 
Neptune, 12,570, and that of Uranus, 15,730 miles 
per hour. The distance of Pluto from the sun is 
2,230 millions of miles. Being 600 millions from 
Neptune, and 400 from Uranus, it could not have 
been made asteroidal by their influences. If, there- 
fore, a ring ever did exist in this interval, a planet 
is moving in it now. 



bode's law. 167 



bode's law of the planetary distances. 

Kepler was the first astronomer who noticed the 
fact that the intervals between the planets become 
greater as we proceed outward from the centre. 
He also noticed that the interval between Jupiter 
and Mars, and also that between Venus and Mer- 
ciuy, was too great for the rule. He therefore 
suggested, or rather predicted, with the bold enthu- 
siasm that characterized him, that a new planet 
would be discovered in each of those intervals. 

Prof. Bode, of Berlin, has expressed the idea of 
the increasing intervals, by a scheme of numbers, 
which is known as ^^ BocWs TjClw!''^ It is as follows: 



Mer. 


Ven. 


Earth. 


Mars. 


Ast. 


Jup. 


Sat. 


Uran. 


Nept. 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 





3 


6 


12 


24 


48 


96 


192 


384 



4 7 10 16 28 52 100 196 388 
3-9 7-3 10 15-2 27-4 '52 95-4 192 300 

The first line of figures is a repetition of 4 ; th'e 
second line begins with 0, then 3, next twice 3, 
then four times 3, and so on. The third line is ob- 
tained by adding the figures of the two upper lines 
together. The fourth, or last line, represents the 
actual distances of the planets from the sun. 

Althoug:h Prof. Bode could oiye no reason for the 
law or relation of the distances, which he and others 
had obsei-ved, we can now, by the light of the 
principles which have been explained in this essay, 
perceive that Bode's law has \i^ foundation in na- 



168 bobe's law. 

ture. The primitive rings, or (which is the same 
thing) the planetary intervals, actually did in- 
crease in width bv a reg^ular law, thouQ^h it was 
not identical with that of Bode. The real cause of 
the increase in the width of the ringrs with dis- 
tance from the primary, was the rate of the de- 
crease of the velocities. This rendered a greater 
difference of distance necessary to produce a ring 
in the outer part of the system than in the interior. 
Had the decrease of the velocities been uniform, 
that is, so much for each mile, the rings would have 
been of a uniform width. The increase in the 
width of the rings^ therefore^ was in the same ratio 
as the departure of the decrease of the velocities 
from uniformity. 

Imperfect as Bode's law is, astronomers have 
hitherto 230ssessed no other means by which to 
judge, or even to conjecture, concerning the proba- 
ble distances of undiscovered j^lanets. When as- 
tronomers found that the perturbations of Uranus 
indicated the existence of an unknown j^lanet, be- 
yond the orbit of Uranus, they had no means 
whatever of guessing its distance, except the mere 
fact that from the Earth to Uranus the intervals are 
about doubled. Leverrier and Adams, therefore, 
predicted that Xeptune would be found about 
eigrht hundred millions of miles farther from the 
sun than he actually is. K the law of common 
difference of velocities had then been known, this 
mistake would not have been committed. It is a 
curious fact that our theory indicates that Hercules, 



bode's law. 169 

the next planet (in the table) beyond the orbit of 
If eptune, is very nearly the same distance from the 
sun as Leverrier and Adams supposed Xeptune 
to be. May it not be that the calculations of those 
two eminent astronomers were more correct than 
has been supposed, and that Hercules, and not 
Jfeptune was the planet for which they were look- 
ing ? (See the tables.) Hansen, one of the ablest 
astronomers in Europe, declared, before Xeptune 
was discovered, that the pertui-bations of Uranus 
indicated two distui-bmg unknown planets : our 
theory and tables indicate more than two. Some 
yery distinguished mathematicians haye expressed 
doubts whether the calculations of Ley enier really 
indicated the existence of Xeptune ; and are inclined 
to look upon its discovery by Dr. Galle as a for- 
tunate accident. K this is true, it follows that the 
disturber or disturbers of Uranus, one or more, are 
yet to be found. Let us hope that the serial rela- 
tions herein explained may contribute to their 
discovery. 
15 



SECTION IV. 

SERIAL RELATIONS OF THE PLANETS. 

THE Telocity of Mercury, tlie planet nearest to 
the sun, is, (according to Lardner,) 110,725 
miles per hour, which is, of course, greater than 
the velocity of any other planet. If a series of 
rings originally existed that differed 1,582 miles 
per hour in their orbital velocities, it foUoTvs that 
each successive ring beyond Mercury had an orbi- 
tal velocity of 1,582 less than its next interior ring. 
If we call the orbital velocity of Mercury 110,740 
miles per hour, and divide that number by 1,582, 
we obtain a quotient of 70 without any remainder. 
There could not, therefore, have been more than 70 
rings, beyond and including Mercury ; for the rea- 
son that beyond the 70th a difference of 1,582 
could not be obtained. The outermost possible ring 
had an orbital velocity of just 1,582 miles per hour; 
the second ring just twice 1,582; the thkd thrice 
1,582, and so on to Mercury, which must have a 
velocity of just 70 times 1,582 — equal tollO ,740. 
It is upon this principle that what I call the serial 
relati07iSj are founded. 

In constructing the following tables, I have 
adopted 1,582 miles per hour as the common differ 
ence of orbital velocities, because I thus avoid the 



OF THE PLANETS. I7l 

necessity of using fractions ; though, perhaps, this 
number is not as near the truth as 1580. For the 
same reason I have assumed that 110,740 is the 
orbital velocity of Mercury, instead of 110,725, 
which is probably more correct. These slight 
variations are, however, unessential. 

EXPLANATION OF TABLE 6. 

The first or left hand column of figures is a repetition of 
1,582, the common difference. The second column contains 
a series of numbers from 1 to 70, which I denominate the 
serial numbers, because they represent the series of rings; 
the most distant possible ring, or planet, (Chaos) being 1. 
The third column contains the orbital velocities of the rings, 
or planets, obtained by multiplying 1582 successively by the 
several serial numbers. The fourth column contains the ac- 
tual velocities, so placed that they can readily be compared 
with the theoretical numbers in the third column. 

Common <?pH31 Theoretical Actual known 

DiflFerence. Xumbers Velocities. Velocities. 

Miles per hour. " ' Miles per hour. Miles per hour. 

Chaos 1,582 x 1 = 1,582 

Xox 1,582 '' 2 '' 3,164 

Cerberus 1,582 " 3 " 4,746 

Bacchus 1,582 " 4 " 6,328 

Janus 1,582 " 5 " 7,910 

Atlas 1,582 " 6 '' 9,492 

Hercules 1,582 " 7 " 11,074 

Neptune 1,582 " 8 " 12,656 12,570 

Pluto 1,582 " 9 " 14,238 

Uranus 1,582 " 10 " 15,820 15,730 

ApoUo 1,582 " 11 " 17,402 

Minerva 1,582 " 12 " 18,984 

Vulcan 1,582 " 13 " 20,566 - 

Saturn 1,582 " 14 " 22,148 22,306 

Jupiter 1,582 " 19 " 30.058 30,203 

Mars 1,582 '' 35 '' 55,370 55,812 

Earth 1,582 " 43 " 68,026 68,890 

Venus 1,582 " 51 " 80,682 81,000 

Mercury 1,582 " 70 '' 110,740 110,725 



1Y2 SERIAL RELATIONS 

In table 6 it Avill be noticed that I have made 
the serial number of Saturn 14, and that of Jupi- 
ter 19, thus omitting 4 serial numbers ; the reason 
is that theory indicates that there were 4 rings of 
asteroids between the orbits of Saturn and Jupiter ; 
though in this table I have omitted them to save 
space. So also the serial number of Juj^iter is 
19, and that of the next planet, Mars, is 35, because 
theory indicates that there were 15 rings between 
the two orbits. There were also 7 rings between 
Mars (35) and earth (43) ; 7 rings between earth 
(43) and Yenus, (51); and 18 rings between Ve- 
nus (51) and Mercury, (70). 

I have taken the liberty to give names to the 
seven hypothetical planets beyond the orbit of 
Neptune, and to the four between the orbits of 
Neptune and Saturn, because it will render a refer- 
ence to them more convenient. 

SERIAL RELATIONS OF THE SQUARE ROOTS OF THE 

MEAN DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS 

FROM THE SUN. 

It is well known to astronomers that one of the 
consequences of the laws discovered by Kepler 
and Xewton is, that the mean orbital velocities of 
the planets are^ one to another^ inversely proportional 
to the square roots of their mean distances from the 
sun. This being the case, it follows, that if the 
orbital velocities of invisible planets or rings are 
ascertained by our theory of common difference of 



OF THE PLANETS. 173 

velocities, their mean distances can readily be as- 
certained by the rules of simple proportion. The 
following are illustrations of the application of this 
rule: The orbital velocity of the planet Mer- 
cury, in vrhole numbers of thousands of miles is 
110. The orbital velocity of Mars is half as much. 
Upon examining the square roots of the the dis- 
tances of these two planets, we find that the same 
proportion (though inverse) exists between them ; 
that of Mars being 12 and that of Mercury 6, 
which is half as much ; in other words, as 110 is to 
55 so is 12 to 6. Again, the velocity of Uranus is 
is 15,800 miles per hour, that of Mercury is 110,725, 
which is 7 times more ; so also the square root of 
the distance of Mercury is 6 and that of Uranus 
42, which is 7 times more. In the same way the 
mean velocities of any two planets in the series, 
may be compared with the square roots of the 
distances of the same two planets, and found to 
be proportional. 

This law of inverse proportion is of great prac- 
tical value, in connection with our new theory ; for, 
when the law of common difference of velocities 
indicates the existence of an undiscovered planet, 
the law of proportion enables us to determine its 
distance from the sun. For instance, in the space 
between Xeptune and Uranus, the law of common 
difference of velocities indicates a planet, which, 
in the table, I have named Pluto, the velocity of 
which is 14,238 miles per hour. Now, as the cal- 
culated velocity of Pluto is to the known velocity 



174 SERIAL RELATIONS ^ 

of 'Mercury, so is the square root of the known 
distance of Mercury to the answer requii^ed ; that 
is, to the unknown square root of the distance of 
Pluto. 

One important result of this perfect proportion 
of the square roots to the orbital velocities, is that 
some of the same serial relations exist between the 
square roots that are found between the velocities. 
This is illustrated by the following table : 

EXPLA]S^ATI02^l OF TABLE 7. 

The first, or left liand column of figures in table 7 is a 
repetition of 425, wMch is the square root of the mean dis- 
tance of Chaos, the most distant possible planet in the series. 
This 425 is obtained by multiplying 6,071, the square root of 
36,857,000, (the mean distance of Mercury,) by its serial 
number, 70. By successively dividing 425 by the serial 
numbers in the second column, we obtain the square roots 
of the distances of all the planets in the series, as they are 
represented in the third column. The fourth column con- 
tains the mean distances the planets from the sun, obtained" 
by squaring the theoretical square roots in the third column. 
The fifth column contains the actual mean distances, so 
placed as to admit of easy comparison : 



OF THE PLAKETS. 



175 



Table 7. 



Sq. Root 

of the distance 

of Chaos. 

Chaos 425 --- 

Nox. 425 " 

Cerberus 425 " 

Bacchus 425 '' 

Janus 425 " 

Atlas 425 " 

Hercules 425 " 

Neptune 425 '' 

Pluto 425 " 

Uranus 425 " 

ApoUo 425 " 

Minerva 425 '* 

Vulcan 425 " 

Saturn 425 " 

4 rings in this interval. 
Jupiter 425 '' 

15 rings in this interval. 
Mars - 425 '' 

7 rings in this interval. 
Earth. ...... 425 " 

1 rings in this interval. 
Venus 425 " 

18 rings in this interval. 
Mercury 425 " 



Serial No's 
used as 


Square R't 
of the 


Distances 
in millions 


Actual 
distances in 


Divisors 


.. 


Distances. 


of miles, mill, of miles. 


1 


::::: 


425. 


180,625 




2 


(( 


212.5 


45,156 




3 


a 


141.67 


20,069 




4 


(I 


106.25 


11,289 




5 


a 


85. 


7,225 




6 


(( 


70.83 


5,018 




7 


(( 


60.71 


3,686 




8 


(( 


53.125 


2,822 


2,854 


9 


(( 


47.22 


2,230 




10 


(' 


42.5 


1,806 


1,822 


11 


a 


38.64 


1,493 




12 


(( 


35.41 


1,254 




13 


(( 


32.69 


1,069 




14 


a 


30.36 


922 


906 


19 


a 


22.37 


500 


494 


35 


(( 


12.14 


147 


145 


43 


(( 


9.88 


98 


95 


51 


(( 


8.33 


69 


69 


70 


a 


6.071 


36,857 


36,770 



176 SERIAL EELATIOXS 



EXPLANATION OF T.^LES 8 AND 9. 

The law of proportion, and the serial relations, extend 
not only to the velocities and the square roots of the dis- 
tances, but also to the intervals or differences between the 
square roots, and the differences between the velocities. 
This is illustrated in the two following tables, (8 and 9), 
which must be studied together as if they were one. 

Table 8 gives the velocities of the planets, and their dif- 
ferences of velocities in serial order from Chaos to Saturn. 
The table might have been extended to Mercury, but the 
principle is sufficiently illustrated without occupying more 
space. It will be seen that if we multiply the difference 
(1,582) between any two consecutive planets' velocities, by 
the greater serial number of the two, the product will be 
the greater velocity of the two. The reason is that the 
velocities and their differences are in a definite ratio to each 
other. 1,582 is one-half the velocity of Nox, and the same 
number (1,582) is one third the velocity of Cerberus, and one- 
fourth that of Bacchus, and so on through the whole series. 
Now, when we examine the corresponding series of square 
roots of the distances in table 9, we find that the same ratio 
exists there : that is to say, if we multiply the difference be- 
tween any two consecutive square roots by the greater serial 
number of the two, the product wiU be the greater square 
root of the distance of the two. The reason is as follows : 
the velocities and their differences, having a certain regular 
ratio to each other, the square roots of the distances and 
their differences (being in proportion to the velocities) have 
the same ratio to each other. Once more I remark that I 
wish the critical reader to bear in mind, that the design of 
these tables is, not to show how near the theoretical veloci- 
ties or square roots agree with the actual, but to exhibit the 
remarkable relatwns which exist between the velocities and 
the square roots, when arranged in what I conceive to be 
their true serial order. I also wish to furnish the most de- 



OF THE PLACETS. 177 

cisive proofs that the relations which I have pointed out are 
not mere coincidences, but are founded upon a law hereto • 
fore unknown. 

Table 8. 

_ , .^. - c- • 1 Theoretical Known actual 

velocities and benal Velocities. Velocities. 

Common Difference. Numbers. Miles p. hour. Miles p. hour. 

Chaos 1,582 x 1 = ' 1,582 

Difference.. 1,582 " 2 '^ 3,164 
Nox 3,164 

Difference.. 1,582 " 3 " 4,746 
Cerberus 4,74l6 

Difference.. 1,582 " 4 " 6,328 
Bacchus 6,328 

Difference.. 1,582 " 5 '' 7,910 
Janus 7,910 

Difference'.. 1,582 '' 6 " 9,492 
Atlas 9,492 

Difference.. 1,582 " 7 " 11,074 
Hercules 11,074 

Difference.. 1,582 " 8 '' 12,6.56 12,570 

Neptune 12,656 

Difference . . 1,582 *' 9 " 14,238 
Pluto 14,238 

Difference.. 1,582 " 10 '' 15,820 15,730 

Uranus 15,820 

Difference.. 1,582 '' 11 " 17,402 
Apollo 17,402 

Difference.. 1,582 " 12 '' 18,984 
Minerva 18,984 

Difference.. 1,582 '' 13 " 20,566 
Vulcan 20,566 

Difference.. 1,582 " 14 " 22,148 22,306 

Saturn 22,148 

16 



178 SERIAL RELATIONS 



Table 9. 

a?t?r?:S. ^Sis. Square Root. 

Chaos, square root 4.25.00 

Difference or interval . . 212.05 x 2 = 425.00 
Nox, square root 212.05 

Interval 70.83 " 3 " 212.05 

Cerberus, square root 141.67 

Interval 35.42 " 4 " 141.67 

Bacclius, square root 106.25 

Interval.. 21.25 '' 5 " 106.25 

Janus, square root 85.00 

Interval 14.17 ♦ " 6 " 85.00 

Atlas, square root 70.83 

Interval 10.12 " 7 " 70.83 

Hercules, square root 60.71 

Interval 7.585 " 8 " 60.71 

Neptune, square root 53.125 

Interval 5.902 '' 9 " 53.125 

Pluto, square root 47.22 

Interval 472 " 10 " 47.22 

Uranus, square root 42.05 

Interval 3.86 " 11 " 42.05 

Apollo, square root 38.64 

interval 3.22 " 12 " 38.64 

Minerva, square root 35.41 

Interval 2.72 " 13 " 35.41 

Vulcan, square root 32.69 

Interval 2.33 '' 14 '' 32.69 

Saturn, square root 30.36 

If any doubts still linger in the mind of the 
reader that this new theory is founded in nature, 
I think they must be entirely removed when he 
finds that the subordinate systems of Jupiter, Sa- 
turn and Uranus give their united testimony in its 
favor. Beyond all question, the same universal 
laws of the Creator by which the solar system was 
formed presided over the formation of every other 
planetary system in the boundless regions of space. 



OF THE PLAiTETS. 179 

Jupiter's system. 

llXPLAKATlON OF TABLES 10 AND 11. 

Proceeding in the same manner as we have with the 
solar system, we take the velocity of lo, the satellite nearest 
to Jupiter, which is 38,784 miles per hour, and divide it by 
what we suppose to be the common difference of the primi- 
tive orbital velocities, which is 808 miles per hour. We find 
the resulting quotient to be 48. We, therefore, iafer that 
the most distant possible satellite or ring of this series has 
an orbital velocity of 808 miles per hour ; and that the serial 
number of lo is 48, that of Europa 38, that of Ganymede 
is 30, and of Callisto 22. The first or left-hand column of 
figures in table 10 contains the common difference, 808, re- 
peated. The second column contains the serial numbers by 
which the 808 is successively multiplied. The third column 
contains the resulting theoretical velocities ; and the fourth 
column contains the actual velocities. 

Table 10. 

„ c- ■ 1 Theoretical Actual 

Common Senal Velocities. Velocities. 

Difference. lumbers. Miles p. hour. Miles p. hour. 

CaUisto 808 x 22 = 17,776 17,743 

GamTuede 808 " 30 " 24,240 24,519 

Europa 808 " 38 " 30,704 30,716 

lo 808 " 48 '' 38,784 38,772 

SERIAL RELATIONS OF THE SQUARE ROOTS OF THE 

MEAX DISTAXCES OF THE SATELLITES OF 

JUPITER. 

The mean distance of lo, the nearest satellite to 
Jupiter, is 269,000 miles; the square root of this 
number is 518.651, which, if multiplied by the 
serial number (48), gives a product of 24,895.3, the 
square root of the most distant possible satellite of 



180 SEEIAL EELATIONS 

the series. If we divide 24,853 by the serial num- 
ber of any satellite in the series, we obtain the 
square root of the mean distance of that satellite. 

Table 11. 

Most distant c^>-„i Square Roots Squares or A«f„oi 

Square Root lumbers «^ Theoretical p^t^nces 

of the Series. J^^i^bers. Distances. Distances. -t^istances. 

Callisto.... 24,895.3 -f- 22 = 1,131.6045 1,280,529 1,152,000 

Gan^Tnede 24,895.3 " 30 " 829.843 688,639 680,000 

Europa ...24,895.3 " 38 " 652.771 425,100 426,500 

lo 24,895.3 " 48 " 518.651 269,000 269,000 

The first, or left-hand column in table 11 contains 24,895.3 
repeated. This number was obtained by multiplying 518.651, 
the square root of the distance of lo, the nearest of Jupiter's 
satellites, by its serial number, 48. The second column con- 
tains the serial numbers, by which 24,895.3 is successively 
divided to produce the square roots in the third column ; the 
squares of which are the theoretical mean distances in the 
fourth column. The fifth column contains the actual mean 
distances. 

seriai. relations of the orbital velocities of 
Saturn's satellites. 

explanation of table 12. 

Let us now examine the system of Saturn's satellites, and 
apply the foregoing principles to them. The orbital velocity 
of Mimas, the satellite nearest to Saturn, is 34,986 miles per 
hour. This number divided by 714, the common difference, 
gives a quotient of 49, which is therefore assumed as the 
serial number of Mimas. The most distant possible satellite 
of this series has a theoretical velocity of 714 miles per hour, 
which is the same as the common difference. Japetus, the 
most distant known satellite of Saturn, has 11 for his serial 
number, because his velocity is 11 times 714 miles per hour 
The following table (12) will now be understood. 



OF THE PLANETS. 181 



Table 12. 

Names of known Common Serial '^^loHtief Actual Velocities-^ 

. Satellites. Difference. Numbers. jYi^gg p_ j^^^j.. ^^^^®^ P^^ ^°'^'^' 

714 X 1 = 714 

714 " 2 " 1,428 

714 " 3 " 2,142 

714 " 4 " 2,856 

714 " 5 '' 3,570 

714 " 6 " 4,284 

714 " 7 " 4,998 

714 " 8 " 5,712 

714 " 9 " 6,426 

714 " 10 " 7,140 

Japetus 714 '' 11 " 7,854 7,968 

Hyperion 714 " 17 " 12,138 12,215 

TiW 714 '' 19 " 13,566 13,635 

Rhea.... 714 " 29 " 20,706 20,776 

Dione 714 " 34 " 24,276 24,516 

TethTs 714 " 39 " 27,846 27,776 

Enceiadus 714 ^' 44 " 31,416 - 30,975 

Mimas 714 '' 49 " 34,986 34,986 



seeial relatioxs of the square roots of 

taxces of s 

satellites. 



THE distances OF SATURX's 



explanation of table 13. 

We T\411 next examine table 13 of the square roots of the 
distances of Saturn's satellites. The mean distance of Mi- 
mas, the nearest satellite, is 126,000 miles. The square root 
of this number is 35.5, which, if multiplied by the serial 
number 49, gives a product of 1,740, which is the square 
root of the distance of the most distant possible satellite of 
this series. 1,740 being divided by the serial number of any 
sattelite of this series, gives, for a quotient, the square root 
of the mean distance of that satellite. The tables of 
Saturn's serial relations are interesting on accoimt of the 
remarkable resemblance which they bear to those of the 
solar system. 



182 



SEEIAL RELATIONS 











Table 13. 












Saturn's system 






Satellite's 






Serial 


Square roots of the 


Theoretical 


Actual known 


Names. 




Numbers. 




mean distances. 


distances. 


distance. 




1,740 


-f- 


1 


— 


1740. 








1,740 




2 


a 


870. 








1,740 




3 


a 


580. 








1,740 




4 


a 


435. 








1,740 




5 


ii 


348. 








1,740 




6 


{< 


290. 








1,740 




7 


a 


249. 








1,740 




8 


a 


217. 








1,740 




9 


ti 


193. 








1,740 




10 


(I 


174. 






Japetus. . 


1,740 




11 


(( 


158. 


2,496,000 


2,414,000 




1,740 




12 


(( 


145. 








1,740 




13 


n 


134. 








1,740 




14 


(( 


124. 








1,740 




15 


a 


116. 








1,740 




16 


a 


109. 






HTperion. 


1,740 




17 


(( 


102. 


1,080,000 


1,050,000 




1,740 




18 


a 


97. 






Titan.... 


1,740 




19 


a 


91.5 


837,000 


800,000 


Ehea.... 


1,740 




29 


i( 


60. 


360,000 


358,000 


Dione . . . . 


1,740 




34 


u 


51. 


260,000 


256,000 


Tethys... 


1,740 




39 


a 


44.6 


200,000 


200,000 


Enceladui 


5 1,740 




44 


ii 


39.5 


156,000 


161,000 


Mi "mas. . . 


1,740 




49 


a 


35.5 


126,000 


126,000 



SERIAL RELATIONS OF THE SATELLITES OF 
URANUS. 



EXPLANATION OF TABLE 14. 

The satellites of Uranus are yet the subjects of discussion 
and doubt, and their elements are generally regarded by 
astronomers as unsettled. In constructing table 14, I have 
put down four of the satellites according to Dr. Lardner. 
The two nearest satellites to the primary are not mentioned 



OF THE PLAJS^ETS. 183 

by him, and have been but lately discovered. I find their 
distances stated in Nichol's Cyclopedia of the Physical 
Sciences; and from this datum I have calculated their orbital 
velocities. The agreement of the actual velocities of this 
series of six satellites with those derived from theory, is, 
under the circumstances, remarkable; and indicates that 
the observations of astronomers are not far wrong. 

There are two other and more distant satellites in this 
system, the 7th and 8th from the primary, (A. and B.,) 
which the elder Herschell announced that he saw through 
his telescope ; and although he recorded their elements, no 
other astronomer has since been able to find them : it is con- 
sequently supposed that Herschell was mistaken. He puts 
down the velocities of these doubtful satellites, (See Lard- 
ner's Hand Book of Astronomy,) one as 3,816 miles per 
hour, and the other as 5,398 miles per hour. If the law of 
common difference may be relied upon, Herschell was cer- 
tainly mistaken, either in his record or in his calculations. 
But it is possible that he was not mistaken in his ohserva- 
tions. He may actually have seen both of them, but com- 
mitted an error in regard to their positions. Apply- 
ing the law of common difference, we find that these two 
satellites, if they exist, have, one a velocity of 4,036, (in- 
stead of 3,816,) and the other 5,236, (instead of 5,392), miles 
per hour. 



184 be rial relations 

Table 14. 
satellites of traints. 

Theoretical velocities. Actual velocitie*. 
Miles per hour. Miles per hour. 

Velocity of A, a doubtful satellite 4,036 3,816(?) 

Add 600x2 = 1,200 

Velocity of B, a doubtful sateUite. 5,2.S6 5,398(?) 

Add 600x4= 2,400 

Velocity of C, a known satellite . . . 7,636 7,636 

Add 600 600 

Velocity of J), a known satellite . . . 8,236 8,178 

Add 600 600 

Velocity of E, a known satellite. . 8,836 8,828 

Add 600x2= 1,200 

Velocity of F, a known satellite. . 10,036 10,056 

Add 600x2= 1,200 

Velocity of G, a known satellite. . 11,236 11,200 

Add 600x2= 1,200 

Velocity of H, a known sateUite. . 12,436 12,500 

Note.— I have, in the above table, put down the actual velocity of A 
as 3,816, and of B, 5,398, but I only mean that these are their actual ve- 
locities according to the calculations of Sir William Herschell, which are 
probably erroneous. 



SECTION V. 

COMPARATIVE ASTEOaENEA. 

IF we compare the solar and the several satellitic 
systems with each other, we find that there are 
not only many points of resemblance, but also 
some particulars in which they are very different. 
It would seem that the system of Jupiter, of 
Saturn, of Uranus, and even of the Earth and her 
moon, were formed by the operation of the same 
general laws of nature which presided over the for- 
mation of the solar system. But the conditions 
and circumstances under which those laws acted, 
were different and peculiar in each system. After 
reflecting much upon the subject, I find that all the 
essential differences among the systems can be ac- 
counted for by supposing that the primitive 
nebulae, from which they were formed, differed 
fi'om each other in density, or in magnitude, or 
both. Suppose two nebulae were at first exactly 
alike in every essential particular, except that one 
was twice as dense as the other. The rino-s formed 
in the more dense system would, according to 
theory, be just as numerous, as wide, and as near 
to the primary as in the less dense; but being 
twice as dense, they would possess twice as much 
attractive power. They would, therefore, purturb 
16* 



186 COMPARATIVE 

each other more, and cause a greater number of 
rings to become asteroidal ; consequently, the in- 
tervals between the normal secondaries would be 
greater than in a less dense system. 

Let us now compare Jupiter's satellites with 
those of Saturn. We may fairly presume that the 
present relative densities of the planets are a 
proper criterion of the relative densities of the 
primitive nebulae from which they were formed. 
According; to this rule the Saturnian nebula was 
the least dense. We can therefore understand 
why the satellites of Saturn are smaller, more nu- 
merous, and nearer to the sun and each other than 
those of Jupiter. The bright rings of Saturn 
have generally been regarded as anomalous and 
exceptional. I suspect, however, that there are 
similar rings in every system ; but that in Saturn's 
system the matter of which the rings are com- 
posed has so little density, and therefore presents so 
large a surface for the reflection of light, that we 
can see them: whereas, in all other cases the 
meteoric or asteroidal masses, though really ar- 
ranged in rings, are invisible, because, instead of 
being aggregated as in Saturn's rings, they are 
formed into more widely separated bodies, so small 
and dense that they have not yet been discovered. 
What we call the zodiacal lights undoubtedly pro- 
ceed from several rings of asteroids, which differ 
from those between Jupiter and Mars, principally, 
in being smaller and denser, so that they cannot 
be as easily seen. Some of the asteroids which 



ASTROGEXEA. 187 

theory indicates, between Saturn and Jupiter, are 
jH'obably quite as large as Juno, and may yet be 
discovered. We can now perceive why Satui'n's 
system, (included within the orbit of Japetus,) is 
five millions of miles in diameter; while that of 
Jupiter, (included within the orbit of Callisto,) is 
only three millions. If the Saturnian system had 
shrunk so as to be twice its present density, it 
would doubtless have occuj)ied less space than 
Jupiter's system does. 

The rings of the Jovian nebula were more dense 
and attractive than those of the Saturnian; and 
therefore purturbed one another to such a degree 
that a large number were prevented from becoming 
satellites, consequently the intervals between those 
that were formed are very wide. 

One of the consequences of our theory is that 
the greater the mass of a primary, the narrower 
the secondary ring^s were at a griven distance from 
the primary ; for the larger the primary the greater 
must be the orbital velocities of the secondaries at 
given distances ; and of course the narrower must 
have been the rings. At the distance of one 
million of miles from Jupiter, the primitive satel- 
litic rings were much vrider than those formed in 
the solar system one million of miles from the sun. 
Saturn's rings, at the same distance, were still 
wider ; and the rings of our own terrestial system, 
from the principal of which our moon was formed, 
was the widest of all, when the distance from the 
primary is considered. 



188 . COMPAEATIYE 

Now let us compare two systems- that are alike 
in every thing, except that in one the primary 
is many times the more massive. What difference 
would that make in the secondaries ? The larger 
the primary the greater, all else equal, must be the 
orbital velocities of the secondaries, and, conse- 
quently, the narrower the rings formed within a 
given distance of the centre. The narrower the 
rings the more they must have pm'turbed each 
other, and tended to produce asteroids. This is the 
reason why the interval between the primary and 
the first secondary is greater the larger the primary 
is, provided the densities are equal. Jupiter is 
both denser and larger than Saturn ; so that there 
are, in this case, two reasons why the the interval 
should be greater between Jupiter and lo than 
between Saturn and Mimas. 



SECTIO:^' VI. 

PHYSICAL CAUSE OF GRAVITATION. 

SIR Isaac N'ewton discovered that the force of 
gravitation is directly as the mass, and inverse- 
ly as the square of the distance from the attracting 
body ; but neither Newton nor any other philos- 
opher has given us even a plausible conjecture con- 
cerning the generation, origin, or physical cause of 
this wonderful force. Descartes, without being 
acquainted with the law of gravitation, attempted 
to account for the fact by supposing that there is 
an imperceptible and universal fluid or ether ^ almost 
infinitely attenuated and subtle,- the vortical mo- 
tions of which caused bodies to gravitate toward 
each other. Newton himself, at one time, partially 
adopted this idea. In one of his letters to a friend 
he says, " I seek in the ether for the cause of gravi- 
tation." He conjectured that the ether is less dense 
in the interiors of bodies than at their surfaces, and 
less dense there than at some distance beyond, and 
thus the density increased with distance. This 
being admitted, he thought that small bodies would 
move toward larger ones because they would, on 
mechanical principles, be forced to advance from a 
denser medium to one less dense. After about 
eight years of hesitation, he expressed his convic- 



190 PHYSICAL CAUSE 

tion that this hypothesis was untenable. There is, 
however, no evidence that he abandoned the idea 
that gravitation depends upon the ether or etheri- 
um, with which the regions of space, and the in- 
terstices of all gross matter, are filled. Euler, the 
celebrated mathematician, entertained the opinion 
that gravitation is caused by a progressive move- 
ment of the etherial fluid toward the centres of 
bodies ; but he frankly confessed that he could not 
conjecture what would cause such a movement. I 
concur with Euler in his opinion that gravitation is 
caused by a movement of the ether, or etherium, 
(as I prefer to call it,) and I take the liberty to 
offer the following hypothesis to account for it. 

The particles of etherium, in common with those 
of all other fluids, possess a wonderful degree of 
motion among each other. It is this motion or 
force that keeps the etherium in an expanded state, 
and enables a very small quantity of matter to fill 
a large space. "When the particles of etherial mat- 
ter come into contact with gross planetary matter, 
the etherial particles become condensed and as- 
similated to the gross matter : they loose their 
etherial character and become a part of the planet. 
The force which kept the etherial matter in an ex- 
panded state, is set free, converted into heat and 
light, and most of it radiated away. This conden- 
sation of etherium, and the conversion and radia- 
tion of its expansive force, cannot happen without 
producing a vacuum at each point where the con- 
densation takes place ; and a converging or gravi- 



OP GHAYTTATIOlSr. 191 

tating movement of the surrounding etherial fluid 
will necessarily follow to fill the vacuum. This 
movement thus produced is the immediate cause of 
gravitation. 

The force of gravitation must be generated in 
the attracting body itself, and not outside of it. 
This is evident from the fact that the force is great- 
est near the body, and rapidly decreases with dis- 
tance. 

If the etherium moves toward bodies to produce 
gravitation, it must remain with them, and it must 
be continually condensed to make room for the 
particles that are following, or else the stream 
would stop. 

The force of gravitation is analogous to light 
and heat and other radiant forces in only one par- 
ticular, and that is, that it decreases with distance 
in the same ratio. We know that the reason why 
radiant force decreases with distance is because it 
is removed further from its source, is divided among 
a larger number of the particles of the medium 
through which it is moving, and difiused over a 
larger area. The same must be true of gravitation. 

Radiant force proceeds froin% celestial bodies, 
while gravitation acts in the contrary direction. 
Gravitation cannot be a force in the same sense 
that light and heat and sound are forces. It is not 
analoo-ous to them in beino; liable to be modified 
by the medium through which it passes; it cannot 
be refracted, nor reflected, nor, by any known 
means, can it be turned out of its course in the 



192 PHYSICAL CAUSE 

slightest degree. It seems to operate through all 
bodies and substances with equal impunity and 
ease, undiminished in quantity by anything except 
distance. If any substance is the agent or medium 
of the force of gravitation, it must be that which 
is the most universal, pervading, subtle and per- 
meating in existence; in a word, it must be 
etherium. 

If we examine the phenomena of nature with 
which we are well acquainted, we find nothing anal- 
ogous to gravitation, except condensation. Here 
the analogy, so far as it extends, is perfect. When 
a body collapses, condenses, or shrinks, the sur- 
rounding fluid concentrates, or gravitates, and 
presses from all directions, toward the centre of 
the condensing body, to fill the vacuum. 

The force of gravitation is commonly said to de- 
crease with distance, but in fact it is merely divided 
or diffused through a larger space. 

I have used the word assimilation in connection 
with gravitation, because I really believe that there 
is a perfect analogy, if not an identity, in the man- 
ner in Avhich gross matter appropriates etherial 
matter to itself, and that in which organic beings 
appropriate their food and assimilate it. Indeed, 
it appears to me highly probable, that etherial as- 
similation is the first step in that wonderful march 
of organic creation, from the lowest to the highest 
types of beings, which is now exciting so much 
interest among comparative physiologists. Vege- 
table and animal organisms result from more ad- 



OF GRAYITATIOX. 193 

vanced and comi^licated specializations, of tlie same 
general process, as that by which etherial matter is 
organized into planetary matter. 

At the first thought it would seem that if this 
theory is true, the planets, and all visible bodies, 
must have increased to such a degree that their 
growth would have been demonstrable. But this 
objection becomes less formidable the more we 
consider the wonderful minuteness of the etherial 
atoms, and also the short period during which 
philosophical observations have been recorded. If 
a man of ever so much natural sagacity never had 
seen a tree, except for a single day, it would be 
impossible for him, by mere observation, to learn 
that it was gradually growing larger. And we 
must consider that a day in the life time of a tree 
is relatively a much longer period than three 
thousand years in the age of the earth. 

In a company in which this theory was under 
discussion, a few days ago, a gentleman made the 
following objection: if the weight of a body, a 
piece of gold for instance, is caused by a stream 
of etherial particles, acting with a certain degree 
of force on one side of the gold, it w^ould be ana- 
lagous in its effects to a wind ; and if the piece of 
gold were beaten out into a thin sheet, and its 
broadest side presented to the current, it shoula 
weigh many times more than if its thin edge were 
presented to the current. But the fact is that the 
piece of gold will weigh just as much in one posi- 
tion as another ; therefore this theory cannot be 
17 



194 PHYSICAL CAUSE 

true. This objection would seem to be well found- 
ed, if we were at liberty to assume that the consti- 
tuent atoms of the gold were in perfect contact- 
with each other, so that the atoms of etherium 
could not get between them ; but the probability 
is that none of the atoms of gold or of any thing 
else are in actual contact ; on the contrary, the 
spaces between them are filled with etherial par- 
ticles. This being the case, a movement of the 
etherium must act upon each atom of gold separ- 
ately, and the effect, therefore, will be the same 
whether the sheet of metal is presented in one posi- 
tion or another. 

Since every known substance may be reduced in bulk by 
pressure, it follows that the particles of matter are not in 
actual contact, but are separated by interstices. *■?«•* 
It is evident tbat the smaller the interstitial spaces the 
greater the density. As it is inconceivable that the particles 
of matter should act upon one another without some means 
of communication, there is every reason to presume that 
the interstices of material substances contain a portion of 
that subtle, etherial, and elastic fluid with which the regions 
of space are replete. * ^ * As the particles are not in 
contact. Prof. Mossoti supposes that each is encompassed by 
an atmosphere of the etherial fluid. The celebrated Frank- 
lin was the first who explained the phenomena of electricity 
in repose, by supposing the molecules of bodies to be sur- 
rounded by an atmosphere of electric (etherial) fluid. — Mks. 
Somerville's Connection of Physical Sciences. 

In order to form a correct idea of the process of 
etherial condensation, we must first consider the 
relation of matter to force and space. It may be 



OF GRAYITATIOX. 195 

laid down as an axiom that, all else equal, the 
qitaiitity of matter and the quantity of force in any 
given space are in inverse ratio to each other. The 
greater the ' quantity of force or motion there is 
among the constituents of any mass, the greater 
space it must occupy. Physically speaking, there 
is nothing in existence but matter, space, and force; 
and neither of these can be destroyed, or its quan- 
tity in any degree diminished. We may change 
the form of matter, but it must, every atom of it, 
continue in existence. So it is with force ; it may 
appear as heat and change to magnetism, galvan- 
ism, electricity, engine motion, or animal force, but 
it is the same identical force under all these differ- 
ent names and modes of manifestation. 

A mass of matter always occupies a certain 
quantity of space Vv^hich is invariable. It may 
change from one space to another, but it cannot fill 
more or less space. What is called expansion is 
the effect of additional force causing the constitu- 
ent particles to become farther separated from each 
other; and what is called condensation is the effect 
of the loss of force, causing the constituents to ap- 
proach nearer to each other. It is atomic or mole- 
cular force which keeps the j^articles of etherial 
matter from all condensing together into perfectly 
solid masses. 

According to the hypothesis of Laplace, the ne- 
bula from which the solar system was foimed was 
expanded and attenuated by free heat, which was 
constantly radiated away to the colder etherial 



196 PHYSICAL CAUSE 

space by which it was siirroimded; and in this man- 
ner the nebula became contracted and condensed. 
I suppose, on the contrary, that the heat which 
the nebula contained was not free but latent. It 
was like the heat that exists m oxygen gas ; and 
which is not set free until the oxygen has come in 
contact with fuel, under the proper conditions to 
produce combustion. I admit that the nebula was 
expanded by/brc6, which was susceptible of being 
made to assume the form of free radiant heat, when 
the nebulous matter became condensed, in con- 
sequence of the mutual collision of its constituents. 

Most of the writers on astronomy and geology 
adopt the idea that the heat of the sun, and the 
internal heat of the earth, are merely the residue 
of the primitive heat, which the solar system pos- 
sessed when in its embryotic state ; that the earth 
and all the planets were once small suns, which 
have gradually cooled down to theu' present con- 
dition. This, however, is a mere conjecture. The 
only facts which lend it any support are derived 
from geology ; and these so imj)erfectly sustain the 
hypothesis that Sir Charles Lyell, the most philo- 
sophical of geologists, rejects it altogether. 

The organic remains found in northern and even 
in polar climates, prove beyond all question that a 
temperate and equable climate once prevailed 
there. But Mr. Lyell thinks that a similar climate 
would prevail th-ere agam if the northern conti- 
nents were reduced to a few islands, and the warm 
tropical currents could have free course through 



OF GEAYITATIOX. 197 

the polar regions, ^vhile the cold Arctic waters in 
return could be freelv and continually discharo-ed 
toward the tropics. 

Just as the elevation of the mountains in the 
tropical Andes and Alps can produce the climate 
of winter there, so the sinking of the polar lands 
would, by preventing them from accumulating 
cold, and at the same time by allowing: the warm 
currents to flow freely among the few low islands 
that remained, produce a climate similar to that in- 
dicated by the geological remains in the secondary 
period. According to the theory of gravitation 
which I am proposing, the earth, instead of grow- 
ing coolor by radiation, has always been quite as 
cool as it is now. If it ha^ changed in this respect 
— if its mternal heat has varied in quantity — it is 
more probable that instead of decreasing, it has 
increased in the same ratio as the mass of the 
earth has increased by the frequent additions of 
meteoric stones, and by etherial assimulation ; for, 
according to our theory, the quantity of internal 
heat possessed by any celestial body is, all else 
equal, in the ratio of its mass. 

The reason why the planets no not radiate light 
while the sun does, is because the radiating sur- 
faces are larger in proportion to their masses the 
smaller the bodies are. If the sun could be broken 
up into a thousand distinct bodies, the extent of 
the radiating surfaces would be so much increased 
that all the bodies would become opaque, and 
their luminosity would cease. The reason why 



198 PHYSICAL CAUSE 

suns give light and heat is because they are so 
massive. The quantity of heat generated is in the 
direct ratio of their masses, while their surfaces 
are inversely as their masses. 

I do not doubt that the interior of the earth is 
filled, and always has been, with fluid matter, and 
that it is now inconceivably hot ; but it does not 
follow that it was once still hotter, and has been 
gradually cooling. The comets are all composed 
of fluid, but no one pretends that they are hot. 
There is no evidence that they radiate either heat 
or light to a perceptible degree. I suppose that 
our globe was once in an analogous condition. If 
a comet exists any where in the regions of space 
which contains as much matter as our sun, I have 
no doubt that it is self-luminous and extremely hot. 

Some philosophers have lately attempted to ac- 
count for the sun's heat and light, by supposing 
that the comets and meteors which fall upon his 
surface convert their velocities into heat, and thus 
compensate the sun for that which is lost by radia- 
tion. In proof of this, they declare that the most 
careful mathematical estimates have established 
the fact, that, unless reiDlenished, the sun's radia- 
tions would be exhausted in four or five thousand 
years. The objection to this hypothesis is, that 
though it may be a true cause, it is an insufficient 
one : and besides, it gives no explanation of the 
internal heat of the earth. I would propose, there- 
fore, to add the force of the etherial particles to 
that of the comets. They may not strike with as 



OF GRAVITATION. 199 

powerful a momentiun as the comets, but they 
surely compensate by their numbers what they 
lack in magnitude ; they also penetrate into the 
utmost recesses, and enter the smallest pores and 
interstices of planetary matter. 

Every mechanical 23hilosopher understands that 
if a body, possessing great mass and momentum, 
is overtaken by a vast number of small, inelastic 
bodies, moving with great velocity, the small ones 
will lose a portion of their velocites by communi- 
cating them to the large body ; and after collision 
they will assimilate their motions to those of the 
large body. This, I conceive, to be a perfect illus- 
tration of the effect of the contact or collision of 
etherial with planetary matter. The etherial par- 
ticles are the smallest in nature, and move with 
greater velocity than any other. When they come 
in contact with planetary matter, they become 
assimilated to it in motion and in condensation. 

Nebulous matter was doubtless the second form 
which primitive matter assumed, in the progress of 
creation ; it was intermediate between etherial and 
planetary matter. 

I have spoken of nebulous matter and of the 
planets as if the day of creation were over; but in 
reality creation is proceeding now as rapidly as 
ever. I can form no idea of a time when there 
were less worlds in existence than there are now. 
When the solar svstem be2:an its career there were 
probably an infinite number of systems quite as 
much advanced in age as ours is now. 



200 PHYSICAL CArSE 

The force that is radiated away when condensa- 
tion takes place is not lost, but proceeds to other 
masses and worlds, and enters them, causing their 
expansion ; thus the balance of creation is main- 
tained. Condensation and expansion, the two 
great antagonistic forces of nature, are kept con- 
stantly equal to each other ; if one mass is con- 
tracting in consequence of radiation, another is 
expanding in consequence of the absorption of the 
rays of force. 

The precise manner in which force produces ex- 
pansion can only be conjectured. It may be sup- 
posed that each of the constituent atoms of a body^ 
air for instance, has a motion in a circle or ellipse, 
and that the addition of more force causes the 
ellipse to enlarge, and thus each atom occupies, or 
moves through, more space in a given time. When 
a mass loses a portion of its force, the diameter of 
the atomic orbits is diminished, and, of course, the 
whole mass becomes smaller. 

Chemists and electricians have long disj^uted 
concerning the manner in which electricity is 
evolved when bodies in different conditions are 
brought together, especially in galvanic batteries. 
Some contend that mere contact is sufficient to 
evolve electricity ; others, that the electricity is the 
result of chemical action. The most reasonable 
theory, to my mind, is, that the comjDonent parti- 
cles of all masses, even the most solid, are con- 
stantly moving in orbits, and that the particles of 
each mass have their own particular velocity. 



OP GKAYITATIOX. 201 

When two masses come into contact, there is in- 
stantly a strii2:2rle amono^ the constituents ; those 
which move with the greater velocity are said to 
possess positive electricity, and those that have 
less velocity possess negative electricity. After 
the struggle is over, the two electricities are said 
to be alike, while, in fact, the velocities of all the 
constituents are alike. The difference between 
velocity and momentum is well known in regi:ard 
to the visible motions of bodies. I suspect that 
what are called positive and negative electricities 
and polarities depend upon the same law. If the 
etherial particles in one body have greater veloci- 
ty, and in another body greater momentum, they 
arc said to possess opj^osite electricities ; one being 
called positive and the other negative. If two 
metals are brought into contact, which differ in 
temperature or density, they differ in electricity ; 
that is to sav, their etherial atoms differ in veloci- 
ty. What is chemical action? It is a name for a 
process which no one understands. All the pro- 
cesses of nature which we do really understand 
are purely mechanical, and must be explained by 
mechanical laws. 

Combustion, or the burning of substances, is a 
process which I conceive to be analogous to etheri- 
al assimilation and gravitation. The heat, or heat 
force, that is evolved when fuel is burned, pro- 
ceeds not from the fuel itself, but from the oxygen. 
Where was the heat before it was radiated from 
the fuel ? Did it reside in the fuel ? By no means, 
18 



202 PHYSICAL CArSE 

It existed in the oxygen. It Avas the force that 
kept the particles of oxygen separated from each 
other. When the oxyo-en came into contact with 
the fuel it lost its expansiye force and became con- 
densed, Avhile the force was set free and was radi- 
ated away, producing effects which we call heat. 
The oxygen which previously occupied a thousand 
cubic yards is now condensed so as to occupy less 
than one cubic inch. The condensation takes place 
at the point where the oxygen comes into contact 
with the fuel. It is f/'0772 this point that radiation 
proceeds. It is here that a yacuum is produced by 
condensation and radiation, and it is toward this 
point that the surrounding air must converge or 
gravitate to fill the vacuum. This is a beautiful 
illustration of the process which, according to our 
theory, is going on in the sun and all other planets 
continually ; that is to say, radiation, condensation, 
assimilation and gravitation are constantly pro- 
ceeding together, and mutually producing each 
other. 

The growing of a plant is produced by the con- 
densation of the carbon which is in the atmosphere. 
A plant is itself, principally, a condensed mass of 
carbon drawn from the atmosphere, where it exist- 
ed with oxygen in the form of carbonic acid. The 
expansive force which it possessed is set free be- 
fore it is condensed, and is radiated away. Thus 
we see that the plant assimilates carbon, the fuel 
assimilates oxygen, and the planets assimilate 
etherium. These three processes are analogous in 



OF GPvAYITATIOX. 203 

all essential respects. If we could see the particles 
of carbonic acid moving toward a plant, of oxy- 
gen moving toward fuel, and of etlierium toward 
planets, we should no longer enquire concerning 
the physical cause of gravitation. 

RECAPITULATION OF ASTROGENEA, 

1. The hypothesis of Laplace, that increasing 
centrifuo'al force threw the exterior rim of the neb- 
ula off, is inconsistent with the fact that 667 parts 
out of 668 are now in the sun; and 439 out of 475 
parts of the remainder are now in the interior third 
of the radius of the system, while only 36 parts are 
in the outer two thirds. 

2. The nebulous mass in rotation would tend to 
become an oblate spheroid; and the most of its 
matter would be located between the sun and Ju- 
piter, where there actually is the least matter. 

3. The effect of a resisting^ etherial medium 
would be to cause the lightest portion of the neb- 
ulous matter to move in spiral paths to the sun. 
The matter nearest to the sun, the orbital motion 
of which was greatest, would be most affected by 
the medium. The densities of the planets, and the 
actual distribution of matter in the solar system, 
and in each system of satellites, is such as this 
theory requires. In each system there is, first, an 
immense primary; second, several small seconda- 

NoTE. — Astrogenea is from the Latin aster ^ a star, and genesis ; and 
literally signifies — the birth of the stars. 



204 EECAPITULATIOX. 

ries with narrow intervals, the first interval, how- 
ever, being greater than the next succeeding one ; 
third, there is one giant secondary, containing more 
matter than all the others; fourth, beyond the 
^iant are one or more secondaries of intermediate 
size, with very wide intervals. 

4. It was long:"a2:o noticed that the intervals be- 
tween the planets and satellites become greater 
the further they are from the centre, and this fact 
is represented by what is called Bode's Law ; but 
no reason for the fact has, until now, been discover- 
ed. I have found that the diflerences between the 
orbital velocities of the secondaries, in each sys- 
tem, can be divided by a common divisor, without 
anv essential remainder. The divisor in the case of 
the planets is 1,582; of Jupiter's satellites, 808 ; of 
Saturn's satellites, 714; of the satellites of Uranus, 
600. I account for this fact on the theory that the 
parts of the nebula were held together by an at- 
tractive force, which, in the solar system, it requir- 
ed a difference of orbital velocities equal to 1,582 
miles per hour to overcome. On account of the 
increasing velocities, this difference was obtained 
with less difference of distance (a narrower interval) 
the nearer the matter was to the centre ; conse- 
quently the rings decreased in width in the same 
ratio as the velocities increased ; and the primitive 
rings had a common difference of velocities equal 
to 1,582 miles per hour. 

5. The movement of the nebulous matter in 
spiral paths toward the centre, caused a large por- 



EECAPITULATIOX. 205 

tion to accumulate at the inner edore of each rino- 
in a globular mass; and thus the rings became 
transformed to j^lanets. 

6. In the interior parts of each system the rings 
were extremely narrow, and the attraction of the 
exterior rings prevented the inward spiral move- 
ment requisite to form normal planets : consequent- 
ly, rings of asteroids or planetettes were produced 
between all the interior secondaries. 

7. In the outer parts of the system, where the 
rings were very wide, and the planets not very large, 
no asteroids were formed : therefore I infer the ex- 
istence of a planet (Pluto) between Keptune and 
TJranus, and several others between Uranus and 
Saturn. I also infer the existence of several undis- 
covered satellites in Saturn's system. 

8. The orbital velocities of unseen planets being 
ascertained by the theory of common difference, 
their distances can also be determined, by the rule 
that the orbital velocities, one to another, are in- 
versely f)roportional to the square roots of the 
mean distances. 

9. In carrying this new theory out to its con- 
sequences, an interesting relation has been discov- 
ered between the square roots of the distances, 
which has never before been known, and which is 
illustrated by several tables. 

10. The more massive a primary, the narrower 
at a given distance, must have been the primitive 
rings or intervals, and therefore more likely to pur- 
turb each other, and produce asteroids. 



206 RECAPITULATION. 

11. The less dense the nebula from which rings 
were formed, the less massive the rings must have 
been, and therefore less likely to produce asteroids 
by their mutual purturbations. 

12. The reason why Saturn's satellites are, some 
of them, so near the primary, is because the primi- 
tive Saturnian nebula had so little density. The 
same fact accounts for the narrow intervals between 
Saturn's interior satellites. 

13. Gravitation is caused by the planetary mat- 
ter constantly assimilating and condensing ethe- 
rium, and setting its expansive force free. The ra- 
diation of this force accounts for the exhaustless 
heat and light of the sun. The movements of sur- 
rounding etherium to fill the vacua produced by 
radiation, is the physical cause of gravitation. 

14. The internal heat of the earth, and of all 
other planets, may be accounted for on the same 
principle. 



CIRCULAR 



or THB 



llimi fi50iiiiiiwriil i0lli|f, 



.A.iL.Bionsr, ns/i:iomc3--A.isr. 



Ever since it was said to Adam, " In the sweat of thy face shalt thou 
eat bread,'' there has been a necessity laid upon man not only to labor, 
but to EXCHANGE With othevs the products of his industry, in order to 
obtain a comfortable supporr. •"Deliver all things in number and 
weight, and put all in writing that thou givest out or receivest in," is a 
precept of universal application: and there is a special necessity for its 
observance in all business transactions between debtor and creditor. 
— Preface to Mayheiu's Book-keeping. 



IRA MAYHEW, A. M, Peesidekt, 

AUTHOR OF ''MAYHEW's PRACTICAL BOOK-KEEPDsG," "MEANS AND ENDS 
OF UNIVERSAL EDUCATION," ETC., AND EIGHT YEARS SUPERIN- 
TENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MICHIGAN. 



DETROIT : 

THE DAILY POST STEA31 PRINT. 



ALBION COMMEECIAL COLLEGE. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

The founder and proprietor of the Albion Commercial Col- 
lege, has long been an advocate for practical education. He 
believes with a former King of SjDarta, that '' boys should 
learn those things which they will have occasion to prac- 
tice when they become men." Certain it is, that while edu- 
cation should be disciplinary, and be conducted with wise 
reference to harmoniously developing all the human capabi- 
lities, it should likewise have due regard to the training of 
youth for the particular callings in which they expect to 
engage. Young men expecting to become lawyers or phy- 
sicians, hence appropriately attend the Law School or the 
Medical College, in order to receive that necessary prelimi- 
nary training without which they cannot reasonably hope 
to attain success. So persons intending to become book- 
keepers, or to engage in merchandise, or in any of the 
numerous commercial pursuits of the country, should at- 
tend a well regulated Commercial College, and for a like 
reason. And in their training here, students should not be 
taught a few forms and methods merely, as is too commonly 
practiced, but they should be thoroughly instructed in the 
principles that underlie all forms and methods, that they may 
be prepared to develop new forms, and to modify old ones, 
as varying circumstances arise ; for they can in no other 
way become adequate to the emergencies that are incident 
to this world of change. 

LOCATION OF THE COLLEGE. 

The Albion Commercial College is pleasantly located in 
the well regulated village of Albion, ninety-five miles west 



APPE^T)ix. iii 

from Detroit, on the M. C. R. R. While thns easy of access, 
it affords a home for the student, while pursuing his com- 
mercial studies, at much less cost than is»attendant upon a 
residence in large cities. 

Commercial Colleges have generally been located in cities, 
thus subjecting students from abroad to large expense for 
board, and exposing them unnecessarily to the corrupting 
influences incident to such situations. It has become an 
established fact, that locations which are favorable for Semi- 
naries of Learning are, for like reasons, desirable for Com- 
mercial Colleges. A quiet and healthy location, commodious 
buildings, competent instructors, and a thorough course of 
study, are essential to success, — all of which, it is believed, 
are here combined. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

The course of instruction in the Albion Commercial Col. 
lege embraces Book-keeping by Single and Double Entry, in 
all their numerous forms, and everything that is necessary 
to the attainment of skill therein. It include*! Penmanship, 
Business Correspondence, and Commercial Calculations; 
Fire, Marine and Life Insurance ; Commercial Law and Con- 
veyancing ; the Philosophy and Morals of Business and 
Political Economy, in their applications. Students, in tak- 
ing this course, pass through a '' Theory Department," in 
which the principles of accounts are clearly explained and 
practically applied, when they are advanced to the " Actual 
Business Department," where they engage in actual busi- 
ness. 

THEORY DEPARTMENT. 

Mayhew's Practical Book-keeping is used as a text book. 
This work commences with the very alphabet of accoimts, 
and gradually advances from the simplest principles of Book- 
keeping to the clear unfolding of Double Entry in its appli- 
cations to the various business pursuits of the coimtry. The 
President of the College, who is the author of this popular 



IV APPENDIX. 

work, daily meets students in the Lecture Room, wliere tliey 
listen to exhaustive Lectures, Tvith demonstrations upon the 
Blackboard. A good foundation is thus laid for the student's 
future success. 

The text book completed, the student in the Theory De- 
partment advances to the study of carefully prepared 
Manuscript Work, embracing Consignments, Shipments, 
Merchandise Companies, Shipment in Companies, Jobbing 
and Importing, Forwarding and Commission, Steamboating, 
Banking, etc. The course includes two Original Sets, pre- 
pared by the students themselves, and embracing the lead- 
ing principles in which they have been instructed, including 
the changing of Single to Double Entry, This work com- 
pleted, the student passes to the 

ACTUAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 

In the Actual Business Department there are a Union 
Store, two Banks, and several offices, in connection with 
which students, before graduating, engage in actual busi- 
ness, and thus become familiar with approved business 
usages. They deposit their cash receipts from time to time, 
in one of the Banks, and check out money as they have oc- 
casion to use it. They give and take Notes, and deal in 
Exchange, as their business requires. They engage as Mer^ 
chants, and buy and sell and '* get gain," using cards for 
merchandise. They purchase Real Estate, and execute 
Deeds and Mortgages, and draw Contracts. They buy 
Wheat, Wool, Fruits, and the surplus products generally of 
the country, and ship and sell them through Commission 
Houses, and otherwise. They likewise engage, in turn, as 
Commission Merchants, recei^i.ng and selling merchandise 
for others, rendering an Account Sales, and remitting pro- 
ceeds, pursuant to instructions. The freshness of novelty 
is in this way maintained throughout the course. And while 
the student's work thus becomes highly attractive, all its 
details are conducted with great care, and with scientific 



APPEXDIX. V 

accuracy, so that the slightest mistake is readily detected, 
should one at any time occur. In this way, and as an aid 
to the inexperienced in comprehending their business rela- 
tions, the Actual Business Department becomes of great 
practical value to the learner. 

LADIES' DEPARTMENT. 

Ladies are admitted to this Institution at reduced rates, 
and enjoy the benefit of the full course of instruction, with 
ample facilities for acquiring a thorough knowledge of ac- 
counts. They attend upon the Lectui-es of the President, 
and the instructions of the Principals of Departments, as do 
gentlemen, and enjoy in common with them all the privi- 
leges of the Lecture Room and Library of the Institution. 
Becoming accomplished Book-keepers, the quiet duties of 
the Counting-room are befittingly open to them. 

BOOK-KEEPING IN SCHOOLS AND 

SEMINARIES. 

Book-keeping by Double Entry, when properly taught, is 
at once attroxtue as a study, unsurpassed as a means of dis- 
cipline, and of great practi-cal xalue. It must, hence, soon 
become a common branch of study in Schools generally, and 
a thorough knowledge of it will, of course, be essential to 
the Teacher. The Albion Commercial College affords every 
desirable facility to persons wishing to prepare themselves 
for giving instruction in this important Science. 

TEACHERS AND SCHOOL OFFICERS. 

Teachers competent to give instruction in Book-keeping 
are now sought in all our principal Schools, whose Officers 
duly appreciate the importance of a thorough and practical 
education. But teachers must learn Book-keeping as other 
things, before they are prepared to instruct. While the 
Albion Commercial College offers special facilities to Teach- 
ers who wish to prepare themselves for gi^^.ng instruction 



VI APPENDIX. 

in Book-keeping, it will generally be prepared to refer 
School Officers desirous of employing such Teachers, to 
those well qualified for giving instruction in this Science, 
and who may hence be advantageously employed for that 
purpose. The Board of Instruction of this Institution will 
always take pleasure in thus serving both Teachers and 
School Officers. 

STUDENTS FROM OTHER STATES. 

The management of the Albion Commercial College con- 
templates the perfect development of one Institution, which 
shall be worthy of being sought by persons desirous of en- 
joying first class facilities for becoming accomplished ac- 
countants. As a consequence, our patronage is not merely 
local, but is largely derived from the Canadas, and from 
New England, New York and Pennsylvania, on the East ; 
from Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri, and from Iowa, Min- 
nesota and California, on the West ; and from Indiana, Ohio 
and Kentucky, on the South. We have preferred thus to 
concentrate our energies upon one good School, to distribut- 
ing them among several widely scattered and necessarily 
enfeebled institutions. 

COLLEGE LIBRARY. 

Connected with this Institution is a well appointed 
Library of about 700 volumes, embracing a TVT.de range of 
reading in Biography, History and Travels ; numerous 
w^orks on Science, Literature and the Arts ; valuable treati- 
ses on Agriculture, Horticulture and Landscape Gardening ; 
Standard Works on Government, Education, Political and 
Moral Science, etc., which is free to students, and open to 
the public at reasonable rates. 

WHEN TERMS COMMENCE. 

Ours is a Business College, and, like other business insti- 
tutions, we keep open the entire year on all week days^ 
with the exception of national holidays. Students can 



APPENDIX. Vll 

therefore enter at sucli times as shall best suit their conven- 
ience. Teachers wishing to learn Book-keeping with a view 
of introducing the study into their Schools, may do so dur- 
ing their vacations. 

HOW WE TEACH. 

Students are instructed singly, and receive the attention 
of a Teacher from time to time during the day, as circum- 
stances require, and as difficulties arise. Mayhew's Book- 
keeping, is employed as a text book in the early part of the 
course. After this is completed, full sets of carefully pre- 
pared Manuscript Work are employed, both in the " Theory 
Department," and in the Department of "Actual Business." 



LECTURES TO CLASSES. 

WTiile students receive individual instruction from the 
Principals of Departments, who are accomplished teachers, 
they have likemse the privilege of attending upon full 
courses of Lectures by the President, and of being 
thoroughly drilled in classes in the Lecture Room of the 
College, while they listen to demonstrations from the black- 
board. Our course thus combines the advantages of indi- 
vidual instruction and class drill. 



QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION. 

A common English education is all that is necessary pre- 
paratory to admission, though the more one is accustomed 
to study, and the farther he is advanced, particularly in 
mathematical studies, the more rapid and satisfactory will 
be his progress. Many students, however, do Avell whose 
preliminary education has hardly embraced more than the 
fundamental rules of arithmetic, this being the most im- 
portant of the preparatory studies, and, in addition to 
reading and writing, the only one absolutely essential. 



VIU APPENDIX. 

BOOKS AND STATIONERY. 

All the Books and Stationery required in the Commercial 
Course, may be obtained at the College Rooms at cheap 
rates. The stationery used, and gold pens of an excellent 
quality, are manufactured expressly for our use. 

PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORT HAND. 

This Science enables those acquainted with it to perma- 
nently possess much valuable information which they 
would otherwise be unable to record and preserve, six- 
sevenths of the time and labor required in the common 
mode of writing being saved by its use. An opportunity is 
here offered, at moderate cost, for learning the Correspond- 
ing Style — an acquisition of great value to both literary 
and business men. 

TUITION AND EXPENSES. 

Scholarshii)s for the full course, time unlimited, 

with the privilege of review at any time, - - $30 
Scholarships to disabled Soldiers, ------ 25 

Scholarships to minor children of Clerg\Tiien, - - - 25 
Scholarships to Ladies, --------- 20 

Stationery for the course, about ------- 12 

Board per week, --------- |i3.50 to 4 

Graduating fee, including Diploma, ------ 2 

Penmanship alone, 30 Lessons, - ------ 5 

Phonography, Corresi^onding Style, ----- 10 

Should the time not exceed fourteen weeks, the entire cost 
to the student need be only about $100 for the full course. 

For pamphlet circulars, gi^dng full information in regard 
to this Institution, and containing notices of Mayhe^vV 
Book-keeping, and his work on Education, apply at the Col- 
lege Office, or address, 

IRA MAYHEW, President, 

AIjBION, Mich. 



